# PostQuantum - Quantum Computing, Quantum Security, PQC > Preparing for the Quantum Age --- ## Pages - [Practical Quantum Resistance](https://postquantum.com/practical-quantum-resistance-book/): Practical Quantum Resistance Book - [Topic: Post-Quantum](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum-pqc/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Topic: Q-Day, Y2Q](https://postquantum.com/q-day-y2q/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Topic: Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-qc/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Topic: Quantum Computing Modalities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-modalities/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - 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[Quantum Hardware Companies and Roadmaps Comparison (2025 Edition)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-roadmaps-2025/): Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI... - [PQC Estimation, Readiness, Migration Tools](https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-tools/): I build simple, opinionated tools to help security teams turn hype into action. Each tool is meant for education and scenario exploration - [Contact Me](https://postquantum.com/contact/): Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy - [CRQC Readiness Benchmark (Q-Day Estimator)](https://postquantum.com/crqc-readiness-benchmark-q-day-estimator/): CRQC Readiness Benchmark and Q-Day Estimator helps you make your own prediction for the arrival of CRQC and Q-Day - [PQC Migration Advisor](https://postquantum.com/pqc-migration-advisor/): PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each - [PQC Readiness Self-Assessment Scorecard](https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-self-assessment-scorecard/): PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each - [Appearances & Contributions](https://postquantum.com/appearances/): Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI... - [License](https://postquantum.com/license/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Articles by Country - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/articles-countries-quantum-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Articles by Industry - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-industry/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles & News - United States](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-united-states/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in US - [Quantum Articles - Aerospace & Automotive](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-aerospace-automotive/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Energy & Utilities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-energy-utilities/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Finance & Banking](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-finance-banking/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Government & Defense](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-government-defense/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Healthcare & Medical Research](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-healthcare/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Materials & Chemicals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-materials-chemicals/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-pharma-biotech/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Supply Chain & Logistics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-logistics/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Telecommunications](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-telecommunications/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Industry News - PostQuantum - 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[PostQuantum.com - Quantum Computing, Quantum Security, PQC](https://postquantum.com/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/marin-ivezic/): Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy - [Internet of Things (IoT) Wireless Protocols](https://postquantum.com/iot-wireless-protocols/): Future of Leadership in the Age of AI - Book by Marin Ivezic and Luka Ivezic - [Marin's Q-Day Predictions - Q-Day Estimator & Timeline](https://postquantum.com/marin-q-day-prediction/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Timeline of Key Cyber-Kinetic Attacks, Incidents & Research](https://postquantum.com/timeline-cyber-kinetic/): Timeline of key historic cyber-kinetic attacks, system malfunctions and key researcher demos targeting cyber-physical systems, IoT, ICS... --- ## Posts - [Forget Q-Day Predictions - Regulators, Insurers, Investors, Clients Are Your New Quantum Clock](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-deadlines-set/): Whether you personally believe Q-Day will come in 5 years or 50, the world around you isn’t taking chances - and neither can you. - [New Paper Alert: A Relational Critique of Bell Locality](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/relational-critique-bell-locality/): Just a few days ago Waaijer and van Neerven published a paper "A Relational Critique of Bell Locality" in which they analyze Bell experiments... - [New Paper Alert: Brace for Impact: New ECDLP Challenge Ladder Benchmarks Quantum Threat to Bitcoin](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ecdlp-challenge-ladder/): The “Brace for Impact” ECDLP challenge suite is a great attempt to translate a looming cryptographic crisis into a concrete set of problems... - [The Easiest Job in Quantum Computing - Being a Cynic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cynicism/): Don’t mistake the noise of cynicism for the signal of intelligence. If someone validates themselves as a useless cynic - unwilling to provide... - [New Paper Alert: Mapping Quantum Industry Demands to Education](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mapping-quantum-industry-education/): A new peer-reviewed study - “Mapping quantum industry demands to education: a critical analysis of skills, qualifications, and modalities” - [Why Companies May Need a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO)](https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-quantum-officer-cqo/): In my opinion, forward-thinking organizations should consider creating a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO) role. - [Magic States: A Key to Universal Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/magic-states/): Magic states are special quantum states that enable the universal operations needed for any quantum algorithm, yet which are not themselves... - [Marin’s Law on Crypto-Agility: Adaptability Determines Survivability](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/marins-law-crypto-agility/): Thesis: Migration time to safer cryptography is inversely proportional to an organization’s crypto-agility. - [Alice & Bob’s New “Unfolded” Code Dramatically Lowers Magic State Overhead](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/alice-bobs-magic-state-paper/): A new research paper from quantum startup Alice & Bob in collaboration with Inria unveils a technique to significantly reduce the cost of magic state - [CRQC Readiness Benchmark vs. Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark-vs-qtt/): I will try and compare my proposed CRQC Readiness Benchmark with QTT, highlighting fundamental differences in methodology, assumptions... - [How You, Too, Can Predict Q-Day (Without the Hype)](https://postquantum.com/q-day/how-to-predict-q-day/): For three decades, Q-Day has been “just a few years away.” I want to show you how to make your own prediction on when Q-Day will arrive. - [The Trouble with Quantum Computing and Q-Day Predictions](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-predictions/): The trouble with quantum computing predictions so far has been that too many have been more speculation than science... - [Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) Review Praising the Tool Questioning the Demo](https://postquantum.com/q-day/qtt-criticism/): The Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) is a newly released open-source tool by Cambridge Consultants and the University of Edinburgh... - [Quantum Tech and Espionage: What Every Researcher Must Know](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/espionage-quantum/): To the untrained eye, espionage against scientists can be nearly invisible - it blends into everyday academic or business activity. Certain red flags... - [Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Act: U.S. Senate Ramps Up Push for Post-Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-cybersecurity-migration-act/): On July 31, 2025, U.S. Senators Peters (D-Mich.) and Blackburn (R-Tenn.) introduced the National Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Strategy Act - [Quantum Sensing and AI for Drone and Nano-Drone Detection](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-ai-drones/): Quantum sensing technologies are emerging as powerful tools to detect and track UASs, including small and nano-drones that often... - [Board AI Governance and Oversight](https://postquantum.com/leadership/ai-board-oversight/): AI is reshaping businesses across industries, and corporate boards are increasingly expected to oversee AI strategy, ethics, and risk management - [Risk-Driven Strategies for Quantum Readiness When Full Crypto Inventory Isn’t Feasible](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/risk-driven-quantum-crypto-inventory/): Organizations may need to begin their quantum-readiness journey with a risk-driven approach rather than a theoretically perfect one. - [Quantum Art](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-art/): Quantum Art is an Israeli quantum computing startup focused on developing scalable trapped-ion hardware for quantum computers. - [What is the Quantum Threat? A Guide for C‑Suite Executives and Boards](https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-threat-executives-board/): Boards do not need to dive into the scientific intricacies of qubits and algorithms, but they do need to recognize that this is an important risk... - [Microsoft’s Majorana‑1 Chip Demonstrates X and Z Loop Parity Measurements](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana1-chip-data/): Microsoft’s Azure Quantum team has released a new scientific paper - Distinct Lifetimes for X and Z Loop Measurements in a Majorana Tetron Device - [Quantum-Readiness Roadmap: BIS Calls Finance to Prepare for the Post-Quantum Era](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/bis-quantum-roadmap-banking/): On July 7, 2025 the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) published a major paper titled “Quantum-readiness for the financial system: a roadmap" - [How CISOs Can Use Quantum Readiness to Secure Bigger Budgets (and Fix Today’s Problems)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-ciso-budget/): Quantum readiness is not an exercise in science fiction – it’s a very practical program that yields benefits immediately... - [Quantum Brilliance](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-brilliance/): Quantum Brilliance (QB) is an Australian-German quantum computing company developing diamond-based quantum accelerators... - [CRQC Readiness Benchmark - Benchmarking Quantum Computers on the Path to Breaking RSA-2048](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark/): Benchmarking quantum capabilities for cryptography is both critical and challenging. We can’t rely on any single metric like qubit count... - [Quantum Europe Strategy: Europe’s Five-Pillar Plan to Lead the Quantum Revolution](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-europe-strategy/): On July 2, 2025, the European Commission unveiled the Quantum Europe Strategy – a comprehensive roadmap - [Future of Leadership and Consulting in the Age of AI: A Decade On](https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-of-leadership-in-the-age-of-ai-decade/): Exactly ten years ago, on July 3, 2015, we published the first version of Future of Leadership in the Age of AI. At that time... - [Quantum Circuits Inc (QCI)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-circuits/): Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI) is a Yale University spin-out that has pioneered a novel approach to superconducting quantum computing... - [QuiX Quantum](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quix-quantum/): QuiX Quantum is a Dutch quantum technology company specializing in photonic quantum computing hardware. Founded in 2019... - [Quantum Readiness / PQC Migration Is The Largest, Most Complex IT/OT Overhaul Ever - So Why Wait?](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-pqc-migration/): Quantum readiness / PQC migration is arguably the largest and most complicated digital infrastructure overhaul in history. Yes, far bigger than Y2K... - [Preparing for the Quantum Age – U.S. Congressional Hearing Recap and Analysis](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/preparing-for-the-quantum-age-hearing/): On June 24, 2025, a House Oversight Subcommittee held a hearing titled “Preparing for the Quantum Age: When Cryptography Breaks.” - [Why AI Cannot Break Modern Encryption](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-break-encryption/): AI cannot break modern encryption. The reasons are fundamental: Mathematical Hardness, Cryptographic Design... - [Government of Canada Launches Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Migration Roadmap](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/canada-pqc-roadmap/): On June 23, 2025 Canada has issued a new roadmap for migrating the Government of Canada’s IT systems to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). - [The U.S. GAO Publishes a Quantum Threat Report - Right on Strategy but Wrong on Timing](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/us-gao-quantum-report/): The U.S. GAO has issued a June 2025 report titled “Quantum Computing: Leadership Needed to Coordinate Cyber Threat Mitigation Strategy” - [EU Commission Roadmap Targets 2030 for Post-Quantum Cryptography Transition](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-pqc-roadmap/): On June 23, 2025, the European Commission and EU Member States unveiled a roadmap to transition Europe to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) - [Microsoft Unveils New 4D Quantum Error-Correcting Codes](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsoft-4d-quantum-error-correction/): Microsoft Quantum's researchers have introduced a new family of four-dimensional (4D) geometric quantum error-correcting codes - [IonQ’s 2025 Roadmap: Toward a Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer by 2028](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ionqroadmap-crqc/): IonQ has unveiled an accelerated quantum computing roadmap that, if realized, could deliver a CRQC by 2028... - [Q-Day Revisited - RSA-2048 Broken by 2030: Detailed Analysis](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-rsa-broken-2030/): It’s time to mark a controversial date on the calendar: 2030 is the year RSA-2048 will be broken by a quantum computer - or the Q-Day. - [Oxford Ionics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oxford-ionics/): Oxford Ionics is a UK-based quantum computing company specializing in trapped-ion technology, distinguished by its use of microwave-based... - [IBM’s Roadmap to Large-Scale Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC) by 2029 – News & Analysis](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-quantum-roadmap-2029/): June 10 2025 IBM made a landmark announcement outlining a clear path to build the world’s first large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer... - [Oxford Achieves 10⁻⁷-Level Qubit Gate Error, Shattering Quantum Fidelity Records](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/oxford-qubit-gate-error/): Physicists at the University of Oxford have set a new world record for quantum logic accuracy, achieving single-qubit gate error rates below 10^-7 - [A Reality Check on Forbes’ "20 Real-World Quantum Computing Applications"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/forbes-20-quantum-computing/): A few of Forbes’s examples are genuinely promising; several smash together disparate ideas without noting the engineering road‑map... - [Trump’s New Cybersecurity Order – What Changed and Why It Matters - Quantum Perspective](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/trump-cybersecurity-order-quantum/): On June 6, 2025, President Donald J. Trump signed Executive Order titled “Sustaining Select Efforts to Strengthen the Nation’s Cybersecurity” - [Cryptographic Inventory Vendors and Methodologies](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-inventory-vendors/): Achieving a comprehensive cryptographic inventory often requires combining multiple tools and methodologies. Each solution... - [What Is Q-Day (Y2Q)?](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q/): Q-Day, sometimes called “Y2Q” or the “Quantum Apocalypse”, refers to the future moment when a quantum computer becomes powerful enough - [Quantum Breakthrough Slashes Qubit Needs for RSA-2048 Factoring](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-breakthrough-rsa-2048/): A new breakthrough research preprint by Google Quantum AI scientist Craig Gidney has dramatically lowered the estimated resources... - [IonQ](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ionq/): IonQ is a publicly traded leader in trapped‑ion quantum computing whose strategy is to reach useful fault tolerance with fewer physical qubits... - [IQM](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/iqm/): IQM Quantum Computers is a Finland‑based hardware company building superconducting (transmon) quantum processors... - [Microsoft](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/microsoft/): Microsoft Majorana Topological Quantum Computing - [Nord Quantique](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/nord-quantique/): Nord Quantique is a Canadian quantum computing startup focused on building fault-tolerant quantum computers through innovative... - [Pasqal](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/pasqal/): Pasqal is a French pioneer in neutral-atom quantum computing, building large, reconfigurable arrays of laser‑trapped Rydberg atoms - [PsiQuantum](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/psiquantum/): PsiQuantum is a Silicon Valley-based startup taking a fundamentally different approach: photonic quantum computing. - [QuEra Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quera/): QuEra Computing is a Boston-based quantum computing company pioneering neutral-atom quantum processors. - [Rigetti](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/rigetti/): Rigetti Computing is a full-stack quantum hardware company specializing in superconducting qubit processors. - [Xanadu](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/xanadu/): Xanadu is a Toronto-based quantum computing company pioneering photonic (light-based) quantum processors. - [Quantum Computing Inc](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-computing-inc/): Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) is a young entrant in the quantum computing race that has charted a strikingly different course from its larger rivals. - [Quantinuum](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantinuum/): Quantinuum, formed by the 2021 merger of Honeywell Quantum Solutions and Cambridge Quantum, is another leader in trapped-ion - [Quantum Winter Warning: Why Overhype and the QCI Saga Could Chill Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-winter-warning/): The saga of Quantum Computing Inc. is a stark illustration of what happens when hype becomes unmoored from truth. - [Global Quantum Innovation Ecosystems: Lessons for TTOs from Around the World](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/global-quantum-innovation/): For universities and tech transfer offices (TTOs), understanding global diverse quantum innovation ecosystems is more than a matter of curiosity... - [Fujitsu](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/fujitsu/): Fujitsu, a Japanese IT and computing giant, has emerged as a serious player in quantum computing through a multi-pronged strategy spanning... - [Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oqc/): Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC) is a UK-based quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-out from the University of Oxford. - [ORCA Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/orca-computing/): ORCA Computing is a U.K.-based quantum computing company that builds photonic quantum processors using light (single photons)... - [Planqc](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/planqc/): Planqc is a Munich-based quantum computing startup developing a neutral-atom quantum computing platform - [Quandela](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quandela/): Quandela is a French quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-off from the Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (C2N) - [Intel](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/intel/): Intel’s quantum computing program has carved a distinctive path, marrying cutting-edge quantum research with the might of silicon manufacturing - [Amazon AWS](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/amazon-aws/): Amazon has taken a dual approach to quantum computing, combining cutting-edge hardware research with commercial cloud services. - [Atom Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/atom-computing/): Atom Computing is a fast-rising startup developing gate-based quantum computers using optically trapped neutral atoms as qubits. - [D-Wave Systems](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/d-wave/): D-Wave Systems is a pioneer in quantum computing known for its unique focus on quantum annealing - a specialized analog approach... - [Diraq](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/diraq/): Diraq is an Australian quantum computing startup focused on building large-scale quantum processors based on silicon-based spin qubits. - [Google](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/google/): Google is a frontrunner in the quest to build practical quantum computers. The company made headlines in 2019 by achieving quantum supremacy... - [IBM](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ibm/): IBM has laid out one of the most detailed and aggressive quantum computing roadmaps in the industry. Over the past few years, IBM Quantum... - [Aegiq](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/aegiq/): Aegiq is a UK-based quantum technology startup that focuses on building full-stack photonic quantum computing systems - [Infleqtion](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/infleqtion/): Infleqtion (formerly ColdQuanta) is a leading quantum technology company focused on gate-based quantum computing built on neutral atoms - [Alice & Bob](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/alice-bob/): Alice & Bob is a Paris-based quantum computing startup focused on building a universal, fault-tolerant quantum computer using a novel “cat qubit” - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Superconducting Cat Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-cat-qubits/): Superconducting cat qubits are an emerging approach to quantum computing that still uses superconducting circuits but encodes each qubit... - [The Enormous Energy Cost of Breaking RSA‑2048 with Quantum Computers](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/energy-cost-rsa-2048-quantum/): The energy requirements for breaking RSA-2048 with a quantum computer underscore how different the post-quantum threat is... - [Building the Quantum Workforce: Talent Challenges and Opportunities](https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-workforce-talent/): Amid quantum revolution, a bottleneck has emerged: a lack of skilled people. In fact, the quantum talent shortage is now seen as one... - [The Many Faces of Decoherence](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/many-faces-decoherence/): Quantum computers hold enormous promise, but they face a stubborn adversary: decoherence. This is the process by which a qubit’s... - [What Quantum Computers Can Do Better Than Classical Computers](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-classical/): Quantum computers already outperform classical computers on a few specialized tasks, and over the coming years that list of tasks will grow... - [The Rise of Logical Qubits: How Quantum Computers Fight Errors](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/logical-qubits/): Logical qubits are the linchpin for delivering on the promise of quantum computing. They are the qubits as we wish we had them... - [Quantum Patents and IP Strategy: Safeguarding Innovation in a Crowded Field](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-patents-ip/): Patents, when aligned with business goals, can attract investment, deter infringement, and provide leverage for collaboration. TTOs and innovators... - [Breaking RSA Encryption: Quantum Hype Meets Reality (2022-2025)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/breaking-rsa-quantum-hype/): If you encrypted a message with an RSA-2048 public key today, no one on Earth knows how to factor it with currently available technology... - [NIST PQC Security Strength Categories (1–5) Explained](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nist-pqc-security-categories/): As part of its post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization, NIST introduced five security strength categories (often labeled Levels 1-5) - [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Standardization - 2025 Update](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-pqc-nist/): Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is here - not in theory, but in practice. We have concrete algorithms, with standards guiding their implementation - [UK NCSC Releases "Timelines for migration to post-quantum cryptography"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-ncsc-timelines-pqc/): London, UK (NCSC) - The UK’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) this week unveiled new guidance on timelines for migrating... - [Why I Founded Applied Quantum - The First Pure-Play, End-to-End Quantum Consultancy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/applied-quantum-focused/): Applied Quantum is the first and only end-to-end pure-play 100% quantum--focused professional services firm... - [Quantum Programming: An In-Depth Introduction and Framework Comparison](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-programming/): Quantum programming is an emerging discipline that challenges developers to think beyond classical bits and deterministic algorithms... - [How Quantum Could Break Through Amdahl’s Law and Computing’s Limits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-amdahls-law/): A fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get... - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in South Korea](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-south-korea/): South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy... - [D-Wave Claims Quantum Supremacy with Quantum Annealing](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-quantum-advantage/): D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” - [NIST Picks HQC as New Post-Quantum Encryption Candidate](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-hqc-pqc/): NIST has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4... - [Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC) with Erasure Qubits](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/fault-tolerant-erasure-qubits/): Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in the Middle East](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-middle-east/): Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - [The Race Toward FTQC: Ocelot, Majorana, Willow, Heron, Zuchongzhi](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fault-tolerant-quantum-race/): Race to fault-tolerant quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses... - [Zuchongzhi 3.0 Quantum Chip: Technical Analysis and Implications](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-3-0-quantum-chip/): China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor - [Quantum Geopolitics: The Global Race for Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-geopolitics/): Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications... - [Physics at the Heart of the New Cold War](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/physics-quantum-cold-war/): In the 21st century, cutting-edge physics has moved from the laboratory into the realm of high geopolitics. Breakthroughs in quantum computing... - [AI and Quantum Sensing: A Perfect Synergy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ai-quantum-sensing/): AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest... - [Financing the Quantum Leap: Funding Strategies for University Spin‑offs](https://postquantum.com/leadership/funding-quantum-startups/): In the end, funding a quantum leap is about building bridges – between lab and market, between public and private interests, and between... - [AWS Announces Ocelot Chip for Ultra-Reliable Qubits](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/aws-ocelot-quantum-chip/): Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone... - [Quantum Use Cases in Telecom](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-telecom/): Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we operate networks - [Microsoft’s Majorana-Based Quantum Chip - Beyond the Hype](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana-1-hype/): In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design... - [Quantum of Flapdoodle: A Guide to Quantum Hype and Scams](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-of-bullshit/): The gap between the hard reality of quantum engineering and the sensational way it’s often portrayed has created a fertile breeding ground... - [Executive Order 14144: Biden’s Big Swing at Cybersecurity Modernization](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/executive-order-14144-quantum/): On January 16 2025 President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14144, “Strengthening and Promoting Innovation in the Nation’s Cybersecurity.” - [Quantum Use Cases in Healthcare & Medical Research](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-healthcare/): Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point... - [Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 101: A Guide for Cybersecurity Professionals](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-key-distribution-qkd-cyber/): Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a security technology that leverages quantum physics to enable two parties to share secret encryption keys - [First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 by Quantum Computer? Not Even Close!](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/factorization-rsa-2048-chinese-claim/): Chinese researchers published “A First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 Integer by D-Wave Quantum Computer.” Not even close! - [Entropy-Driven Photonic Quantum Computing: A Critical Look at QCI’s Approach](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/entropy-quantum-computing-qci/): Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) has introduced an unconventional paradigm in quantum computing called Entropy Quantum Computing (EQC) - [Russia Unveils First 50-Qubit Quantum Computer Prototype](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/russia-50-qubit-quantum/): Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap... - [China’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum/): For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope... - [Quantum Technology Initiatives in Singapore and ASEAN](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-singapore-asean/): ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s... - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Russia](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-russia/): Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics... - [Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE) Breakthroughs](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/variational-quantum-eigensolver-vqe/): The Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), introduced in 2014, has rapidly become a flagship algorithm for simulating ground-state properties... - [Quantum Contrarianism](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-contrarianism/): Contrarianism in quantum tech, as in any tech, is best viewed as a tool, not a truth. It’s a tool for questioning and refining the narrative... - [Google Announces Willow Quantum Chip](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-willow-quantum-chip/): Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing... - [Quantum Technologies and Cybersecurity: Threats and Defenses](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cybersecurity/): Quantum technologies introduce a new era for cybersecurity – one that is simultaneously perilous and full of potential. - [Quantum Computing Benchmarks: RCS, QV, AQ, and More](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-benchmarks/): Researchers have developed specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance... - [Adiabatic Quantum (AQC) and Cyber (2024 Update)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/adiabatic-quantum-annealing-cyber/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem... - [Quantum Technology Initiatives in Europe and EU](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-europe-eu/): Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor... - [IBM Unveils 156-Qubit ‘Heron R2’ Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r2-quantum/): IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor - Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio - [Quantum Hacking: Cybersecurity of Quantum Systems](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-hacking/): While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity . As quantum computing moves into cloud... - [The Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) – A Beginner’s Guide](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-approximate-optimization-algorithm-qaoa/): At its core, QAOA is a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that constructs a special kind of quantum circuit (or “ansatz”) to represent... - [Quantum AI (QAI): Harnessing Quantum Computing for AI (2024 Update)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-ai-qai/): Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with capabilities of AI... - [Quantum Sensing - Key Use Cases](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-use-cases/): At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately... - [Guide to Quantum ML for Data Scientists](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-machine-learning-qml/): Quantum Machine Learning (Quantum ML or QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional ML - [Closing the Gap Between AI Principles and AI Reality](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-principles-reality-gap/): Organizations must embrace both the ethical principles that guide responsible development and the technical rigor required to secure AI systems... - [Career Opportunities in Quantum Technologies (No PhD Required)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/careers-quantum/): The landscape of careers in quantum technologies is incredibly rich and expanding by the day. What was once the domain of a few physicists... - [Australia Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-australia/): Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning... - [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Meets Quantum AI (QAI)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-quantum-ai-qai/): Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Aerospace & Automotive](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-aerospace-automotive/): Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Finance & Banking](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-finance-banking/): Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector... - [India Tests First Indigenous 6-Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/india-6-qubit-quantum-processor/): India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Government & Defense](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-government-defense/): Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises... - [Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible, Safe, Secure AI](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/responsible-ai-secure-ai/): Addressing the Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible AI, Trustworthy AI, Secure AI, Ethical AI, and Safe AI Explained - [Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in the USA](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/us-quantum/): The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system... - [NIST Unveils Post‑Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Standards](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-standards/): NIST has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms... - [Myths and Realities of Quantum Commercialization](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/myths-quantum-commercialization/): Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty... - [Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in Canada](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-canada/): Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal... - [RSA-2048 Within Reach of 1730 Qubits. Or is it?](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/rsa-2048-1730-qubits/): The paper’s main claim: by using approximate residue arithmetic and other optimizations, one can factor RSA-2048 with around 1730 logical qubits... - [NIST to Release PQC Algorithms in the Summer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-summer/): The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks... - [Bridging the Quantum Lab-to-Market Gap: How External Experts Boost Tech Transfer](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-external-tto/): Quantum’s big wins will come from breaking silos and working together. Universities, TTOs, scientists, entrepreneurs, investors... - [Quantum Computing Use Cases in Materials & Chemicals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-materials-chemicals/): Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. - [China Unveils Xiaohong: A 504-Qubit Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-xiaohong/): Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip... - [Hole-Spin Qubits Demonstrated in Silicon FinFETs](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/hole-spin-qubits/): Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by demonstrating a controllable interaction between hole-spin qubits... - [From Lab Breakthroughs to Quantum Boom: Why the Time to Commercialize is Now](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-commercialization/): External quantum commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the expertise that most academic teams lack... - [Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) Deep-Dive](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-bill-of-materials-cbom/): Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) represent the next evolution in software transparency and security risk management... - [Major Leap for Quantum Internet: First Critical Connection](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/imperial-quantum-internet/): In a pioneering achievement, researchers have established a crucial connection necessary for the quantum internet... - [How to Perform a Comprehensive Quantum Readiness Cryptographic Inventory](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptographic-inventory/): A cryptographic inventory is essentially a complete map of all cryptography used in an organization’s systems – and it is vital for understanding... - [EU Publishes a Recommendation on Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-recommendation-post-quantum/): EU publishes "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography" - [New Legislation to Boost U.S. DoD Quantum Capabilities](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/dod-quantum-bill/): A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's integration of quantum - [The Dual Risks of AI Autonomous Robots: Uncontrollable AI Meets Cyber-Kinetic Risks](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/risks-ai-autonomous-robots/): Can we afford to relinquish control of robots to an AI whose behavior we have yet to learn how to govern with certainty? - [The Board’s Evolving Cybersecurity Mandate: From Oversight to Accountability](https://postquantum.com/leadership/boards-cybersecurity/): Cybersecurity has swiftly moved from an IT issue to a core boardroom concern. Regulators around are increasingly holding boards... - [Microsoft Announces Record Breaking Logical Qubit Results](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/logical-qubit-microsoft/): Microsoft and Quantinuum announced a significant achievement in quantum computing, demonstrating the most reliable logical qubits on record - [Digital Actions, Lethal Consequences: A Cyber-Kinetic Risk Primer](https://postquantum.com/uncategorized/cyber-kinetic-risk-primer/): Our physical world is becoming more connected – which makes it more dependent on the cyber world. Many physical objects... - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Switzerland](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-switzerland/): Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative... - [Fortifying the Future: Cyber-Kinetic Risks in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's (KSA) Technological Zeitgeist](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-saudi-ksa/): To fortify its cyber-kinetic defenses in line with growing digital transformation and infrastructural expansions, Saudi Arabia must adopt... - [4,099 Qubits: The Myth and Reality of Breaking RSA-2048 with Quantum Computers](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/4099-qubits-rsa/): 4,099 is the widely cited number of quantum bits one would need to factor a 2048-bit RSA key using Shor’s algorithm – in other words... - [Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) Quantum Risk Advisory](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mas-quantum-advisory/): Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issues "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum" - [Telecom’s Quantum‑Safe Imperative: Challenges in Adopting Post‑Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/telecom-pqc-challenges/): The race is on to quantum‑proof the world’s telecom networks. With cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) projected to arrive... - [Quantum Repeaters: The Key to Long-Distance Quantum Comms](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-repeaters/): Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which qubits can be sent - [Quantum Technologies & Quantum Computing in the UK](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-united-kingdom/): The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. - [Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction by Nord Quantique](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/error-correction-nord-quantique/): Researchers from Nord Quantique have developed an innovative error correction system that drastically reduces the number of qubits needed... - [Origin Quantum’s Wukong: China’s 72-Qubit Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/origin-quantum-wukong/): In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit... - [What is Entanglement-as-a-Service (EaaS)?](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-service-eaas/): Entanglement-as-a-Service (EAAS) is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly... - [Quantum Computing Risks to Cryptocurrencies - Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Beyond](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptocurrencies-bitcoin/): Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum derive their security from cryptographic algorithms – mathematical puzzles... - [Marin's Statement on AI Risks](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/marin-statement-on-ai-risk/): The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded, non-aligned, recursive self-improvement and disseminating new capabilities to other AIs is a concern - [India’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-india/): India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining... - [IBM Unveils Next-Gen 133-Qubit ‘Heron’ Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-133-qubit-heron-quantum/): IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances.... - [2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-timeline-report/): 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - [IBM Unveils Condor: 1,121‑Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-condor/): IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. - [Mapping Dark Web SIM Swapping Economy](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/sim-swapping-economy/): Modern, high-stakes SIM-swapping is increasingly taking the form of an organized conspiracy, with multiple threat actors operating as a gang... - [Quantum Security: Understanding the Terminology and Context](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-security-terminology/): "Quantum security" is a term that is increasingly being used. With everyone having their own definition of the term. - [UK NCS Issues Guidance on Preparing for PQC](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-ncsc-post-quantum-cryptography/): The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography," - [Verified Crypto Account Listings Proliferate on the Dark Web](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/verified-crypto-accounts-dark-web/): Verified crypto-exchange accounts have become a hot commodity on the dark web, with login credentials available for as little as $20... - [Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Modalities & Architectures](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/taxonomy-modalities/): Why multiple quantum computing paradigms? The goal is the same – realize a scalable, universal quantum computer – but the approaches differ... - [99.5% Fidelity in Neutral-Atom Qubits Achieved](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quera-neutral-atom/): A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99.5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Photonic Cluster-State](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-cluster-state/): Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons that have been... - [Over 1,000 Controllable Atomic Qubits Achieved](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/1000-atomic-qubits/): Over 1,000 controllable atomic qubits in one single plane achieved by researchers from TU Darmstadt in Germany. As published in arXiv for now... - [Quantum Memories in Quantum Networking and Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-memories/): Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Ion Trap and Neutral Atom MBQC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/ion-trap-neutral-atom-mbqc/): Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms... - [Quantum LiDAR vs. Quantum Radar](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-lidar-quantum-radar/): Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology... - [Jiuzhang 3.0: China’s Photonic Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-3/): Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons... - [Quantum Computing Breakthrough Achieved with Neutral-Atoms](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/neutral-atom-breakthrough/): Researchers from Harvard, MIT and QuEra have achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by successfully implementing... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Energy & Utilities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-energy-utilities/): Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Superconducting Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-qubits/): Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction... - [Quantum Use Cases in Pharma & Biotech](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-use-cases-pharma-biotech/): Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharma and biotech industries. Its ability to tackle problems... - [AI Oasis: AI's Role in Saudi Vision 2030](https://postquantum.com/society-5/ai-oasis-ais-role-in-saudi-vision-2030/): The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is perhaps the first country in the world to explicitly entrench AI in its national development plans... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Photonic QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-quantum-computing/): Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Holonomic (Geometric Phase) QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/holonomic-geometric-phase/): Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum - [A Deep Dive Into the ‘Rags to Riches’ Manual for Withdrawing Illicit-Origin Crypto](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/illicit-crypto-withdrawal/): Cryptosec summary of the dark web manual for cash-out of illicit-origin crypto assets - "Rags to Riches Guide" - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Trapped-Ion QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/trapped-ion-qubits/): Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Adiabatic Topological QC (ATQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-topological/): Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Topological Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/topological-quantum-computing/): Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Neuromorphic QC (NQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neuromorphic-quantum-computing/): Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing... - [Cryptographic Stack in Modern Interbank Payment Systems](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptograpy-interbank-payment/): International interbank payments rely on multiple layers of classical cryptography to ensure security from end to end. - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Adiabatic QC (AQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-quantum/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Silicon-Based Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/silicon-based-qubits/): Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors & Defects](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/spin-qubits-defects/): One well-known example for spin-qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/measurement-based-mbqc/): Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is... - [New Coalition Launched to Tackle Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mitre-coalition/): The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Neutral Atom (Rydberg)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neutral-atom-quantum/): Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Annealing (QA)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-annealing/): Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum... - [Saudi Arabia Vision 2030: Cybersecurity at the Core of Transformation](https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-cybersecurity/): As Saudi Arabia steers towards its Vision 2030 goals, the emphasis on cybersecurity is not just relevant; it's fundamental. - [AI Security 101](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-security-101/): On this page, I've compiled a selection of my intro articles on AI and ML security (in no particular order). This collection will continue to expand... - [Why We Seriously Need a Chief AI Security Officer (CAISO)](https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-ai-security-officer-caiso/): As AI continues its meteoric rise, the need for a dedicated Chief AI Security Officer (CAISO) becomes increasingly evident - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Walk QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-walk/): Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker"... - [How to Defend Neural Networks from Trojan Attacks](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/neural-trojan-attacks/): A Trojan attack in a neural network typically involves injecting malicious data into this training dataset. This 'poisoned' data is crafted in such a way... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Fibonacci Anyons](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/fibonacci-anyons/): Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics... - [What Will Really Happen Once Q-Day Arrives – When Our Current Cryptography Is Broken?](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-what-will-happen/): How Q-Day is likely to unfold and why its arrival, while not a sudden Armageddon, will fundamentally change how we secure our world. - [Quantum Computing Modalities: QA With Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-boost-bang-bang/): Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Dissipative QC (DQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dissipative-quantum/): Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Majorana Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/majorana-qubits/): Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Biological QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/biological-quantum/): Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Boson Sampling QC (Gaussian & Non-Gaussian)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/boson-sampling/): Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-cellular-automata/): Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Time Crystals' Potential QC Use](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/time-crystals-quantum/): Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state... - [Will the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) beat Japan to Society 5.0?](https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-society5/): It is in Saudi Arabia that we see perhaps the most tangible manifestation of the physical world Society 5.0 imagines. - [Quantum Computing Modalities: DNA-Based QIP](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dna-based-quantum/): DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: One-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/one-clean-qubit-dqc1/): The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Exotic and Emerging QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/exotic-emerging-quantum/): Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Photonic Continuous-Variable QC (CVQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-continuous-variable/): Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Hybrid QC Architectures](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/hybrid-quantum-computing/): Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) & Cluster States](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-ldpc-cluster-states/): Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints - [Is 5G security being sacrificed at the altar of profit, politics and process?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-politics/): Issues with negotiating and licensing SEPs slow down 5G network development and ultimately have a negative impact on the ecosystem as a whole - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Gate-Based / Universal QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/gate-based-universal-quantum/): Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer... - [Model Fragmentation and What it Means for Security](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/model-fragmentation-ai/): The increasing prevalence of fragmented machine learning models in today's technology landscape introduces a unique and complex set... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Annealing (QA) & Adiabatic QC (AQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-adiabatic/): Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve... - [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) in Living Cells](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/cellular-automata-cells/): Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - [Outsmarting AI with Model Evasion](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-model-evasion/): In the ever-evolving landscape of AI and cybersecurity, the need to address model evasion tactics stands out as a critical challenge... - [Ethical and Privacy Implications of Quantum Sensing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ethics-privacy-quantum-sensing/): We have entered a new era where age-old expectations of privacy must be redefined for the quantum age... - [New Hybrid Quantum Monte Carlo Algorithm](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/new-hybrid-quantum-monte-carlo/): Researchers developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical... - [Q-Day Predictions: Anticipating the Arrival of CRQC](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-crqc-predictions/): While the exact arrival date of Q-Day remains uncertain, the necessity for immediate and strategic preparation does not. - [Securing Machine Learning Workflows through Homomorphic Encryption](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/homomorphic-encryption-ml/): Unlike standard encryption techniques, which require data to be decrypted before any processing or analysis, Homomorphic Encryption allows - [Understanding Data Poisoning: How It Compromises Machine Learning Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/data-poisoning-ml/): Understanding and addressing data poisoning is critical, not just from a technical standpoint but also due to its far-reaching real-world implications - [Quantum Readiness for Mission-Critical Communications (MCC)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-mcc/): Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response - [Semantic Adversarial Attacks: When Meaning Gets Twisted](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/semantic-adversarial-attacks/): Semantic adversarial attacks represent a specialized form of adversarial manipulation where the attacker focuses on twisting the semantic meaning - [The AI Alignment Problem](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-alignment-problem/): The AI alignment problem sits at the core of all future predictions of AI’s safety. It describes the complex challenge of ensuring AI systems act... - [Fidelity in Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fidelity-quantum/): While the number of qubits in a quantum processor is an important metric, fidelity and error correction are equally, if not more, significant - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Supply Chain & Logistics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-logistics/): Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally... - [Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL) Risk](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/harvest-now-decrypt-later-hndl/): "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL) is a cybersecurity threat where adversaries collect encrypted data today to decrypt it in the future - [Post-Quantum Cryptography PQC Challenges](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-pqc-challenges/): While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant PQC challenges that must be understood and addressed... - [A (Very) Brief History of AI](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/history-ai/): A very brief history of artificial intelligence (AI). From Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace to OpenAI and ChatGPT - [Understanding and Addressing Biases in Machine Learning](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ml-biases/): While ML offers extensive benefits, it also presents significant challenges, among them, one of the most prominent ones is biases in ML models... - [Quantum Errors and Quantum Error Correction (QEC) Methods](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-error-correction/): Quantum error correction (QEC) is critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum... - [Quantum Era Demands Changes to ALL Enterprise Systems](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-enterprise-changes/): Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. It is not just about changes to a few systems; it requires an enterprise-wide... - [Report "The Quantum Threat to the US Financial System"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-us-financial-system/): Report published. Claiming a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could lead to losses of between $2 and $3.3 trillion in GDP. - [Inside NIST’s PQC: Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nists-pqc-technical/): In 2022 NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption... - [Quantum Networks 101: An Intro for Cyber Professionals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-networks-101/): Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the internet - [Adversarial Attacks: The Hidden Risk in AI Security](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/adversarial-attacks-ai/): Adversarial attacks specifically target the vulnerabilities in AI and ML systems. At a high level, these attacks involve inputting carefully crafted data... - [Google Claims Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-breakthrough-error-correction/): Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step towards... - [Quantum Radar: The Next Frontier of Stealth Detection and Beyond](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-radar/): Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. - [The Future of Digital Signatures in a Post-Quantum World](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-digital-signatures/): The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into lattices and hashes... - [Quantum Sensing - Introduction and Taxonomy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-intro-taxonomy/): Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental... - [Scientists Achieve Entanglement Between Two Light Sources](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/two-light-sources-entanglement/): In a new study, researchers managed to create entanglement between two quantum emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly... - [Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc/): Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity... - [Gradient-Based Attacks: A Dive into Optimization Exploits](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gradient-based-attacks/): Gradient-based attacks are sophisticated exploits that leverage the mathematical underpinnings of ML models and primarily focus... - [Quantum Computer Factors Record 48-Bit Number – How Far Are We from Cracking RSA-2048?](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-48-bit-rsa-2048/): Factoring a 2048-bit number is in a different universe of complexity, requiring thousands of high-quality qubits and billions of operations... - [The Future of Consulting in the Age of AI](https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-consulting-age-ai/): The consulting firm of the future won’t be defined by a choice between human expertise and AI - it will thrive on the partnership between the two. - [Neven’s Law: The Doubly Exponential Surge of Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/nevens-law/): In 2019, Google’s Quantum AI director Hartmut Neven noticed something remarkable: within a matter of months, the computing muscle... - [Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-preparedness-act/): On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H.R.7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act... - [2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/2022-quantum-threat-timeline-report/): 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 4 - Security Operations (SOC)](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-operations-soc/): In many ways a traditional IT-focused Security Operations Center (SOC) could not fully address blockchain security monitoring needs - [Introduction to AI-Enabled Disinformation](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/intro-ai-disinformation/): AI-enabled disinformation poses a significant threat to democratic processes, public trust, and social cohesion. While AI can be a potent tool... - [The Unseen Dangers of GAN Poisoning in AI](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gan-poisoning-ai/): The emerging threat of GAN Poisoning casts a shadow over these advancements, presenting a unique set of cybersecurity challenges - [IBM Osprey: A 433-Qubit Quantum Leap](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-osprey/): IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of 2022 - ["Magical" Emergent Behaviours in AI: A Security Perspective](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/emergent-behaviors-ai-security/): In the realm of AI, the phenomenon of emergent behaviours has been baffling researchers and practitioners. AI emergent capabilities refer to... - [Entanglement Distribution Techniques in Quantum Networks](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-distribution/): Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical... - [Can we afford to keep ignoring Open RAN security?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-security/): Open RAN should also reduce cybersecurity risks compared to conventional RAN, but there are a number of risks that are amplified in Open RAN - [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 2 - Smart Contract Developers](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity-smart-contract/): In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for smart contracts, leaving the potential for security gaps. - [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 3 - User Security](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-user-cybersecurity/): In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for blockchain security, leaving the potential for security gaps. - [How Dynamic Data Masking Reinforces Machine Learning Security](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/dynamic-data-masking-ml/): Dynamic Data Masking offers a harmonious blend of security and functionality, making it increasingly relevant in today's complex data - [How Label-Flipping Attacks Mislead AI Systems](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/label-flipping-ai/): Machine learning systems susceptibility to label-flipping attacks exposes a significant blind spot in cybersecurity measures... - [The Toffoli Gate: The Unsung Workhorse in Quantum Codebreaking](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/toffoli-gate/): Toffoli gate gate doesn’t get much fanfare, yet it’s a crucial building block in quantum circuits for cryptanalysis... - [Wave Function Collapse: When Quantum Possibilities Become Reality](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/wave-function-collapse/): Wave function collapse is the idea that a quantum system, described by a wave function embodying several possible states at once... - [Proof of Reserve vs. Proof of Liability vs. Proof of Solvency](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/proof-reserve-liability-solvency/): Proof of Reserves and Proof of Liabilities can use Merkle trees to prove certain facts while keeping data anonymous... - [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 1 - Node Operators](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity/): In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for the blockchain, leaving the potential for security gaps. - [The 12 Biggest Hacking Incidents in the History of Crypto](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/largest-crypto-hacks/): The most comprehensive ranked list of the 12 biggest crypto hacks, scams, exploits, vulnerabilities in history - [Switzerland and United States Forge Quantum Cooperation](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-us-quantum/): In October 2022, Switzerland and the U.S. signed a Joint Statement on Cooperation in Quantum Information Science and Technology - [Cat Qubits 101](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cat-qubits-101/): Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat... - [ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-integration/): The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study" - [Backdoor Attacks in Machine Learning Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/backdoor-attacks-ml/): In the realm of machine learning (ML), Backdoor Attacks pose a concealed yet profound security risk that goes beyond traditional cybersecurity - [How the Big Binance Bridge Hack Will Change the way People View Web3](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/binance-hack/): $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part. - [How a $1B Flash Loan Led to the $182M Beanstalk Farms Exploit](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/beanstalk-farms-exploit/): How a $1B flash loan Led to the $182M Beanstalk Farms decentralized credit-based stablecoin protocol exploit - [The Top 4 Supply Chain Security Risks of Blockchain Smart Contracts](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/smart-contract-security-supply-chain/): Many of the supply chain vulnerabilities impacting smart contract security arise from a failure to apply DevSecOps best practices - [How the Nomad Bridge Hack can Help Us Explore the Potential Downsides of Decentralization](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/nomad-bridge-hack/): One attacker and hundreds of copycats looted the Nomad bridge for over $190 million; few did the right thing. - [Introduction to Zero-Knowledge Proofs](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/zero-knowledge-proofs-zkp/): A ZKP (Zero Knowledge Proof) allows a prover to demonstrate knowledge of some secret without revealing that secret. - [How Crypto’s Biggest Hacker was Found but Never Identified](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/poly-network-hack/): The $611M Poly Network exploit is the largest crypto hack to date in terms of mark-to-market value and all the stolen funds were returned - [The $160M Wintermute Hack: Inside Job or Profanity Bug?](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/wintermute-hack/): Getting to the bottom of the exploit that led to one of the biggest hacks in the history of decentralized finance. - [Introduction to Blockchain Layers 0, 1, and 2 Security](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-layers-security/): Securing the blockchain requires considering all layers of the blockchain ecosystem and their security risks and controls. - [Mitigating Quantum Threats Beyond PQC](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/mitigating-quantum-threats-pqc/): A common misconception is that adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) alone will solve the problem. There are other mitigation approaches... - [Introduction to Crypto-Agility](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/introduction-crypto-agility/): The field of cryptography is about to become much more dynamic. Which will require organizations to become crypto-agile. What is crypto-agility? - [Perturbation Attacks in Text Classification Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/perturbation-attacks/): Perturbation Attacks refer to a set of malicious alterations made to the input data of machine learning models, primarily aimed at misleading... - [Trying to Solve the Mysterious $200M BitMart Hack](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/bitmart-hack/): $200M BitMart Hack - A missing pile of Safemoon and other cryptocurrencies, accusations of broken promises, and then nothing. - [How Multimodal Attacks Exploit Models Trained on Multiple Data Types](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/multimodal-attacks/): While the multi-faceted nature of multimodal models offers many advantages, it also creates several avenues for potential exploitation... - [Why DevSecOps is Essential for the Blockchain Ecosystem](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-devsecops/): Managing the threat of insecure code on the blockchain requires developers to embrace the DevSecOps and better integrate security. - [What the $534M Coincheck Hack Taught Us All About Safe Storage of Digital Assets](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/coincheck-hack/): $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part. - [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 6 - Wallet Attacks](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/crypto-wallet-attacks/): Wallets are a logical target for cyber-attacks, along with the emerging institutions that hold custody of them on users’ behalf. - [What the Biggest Blockchain Game’s Hack Reveals about the Future of Crypto Adoption](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/ronin-bridge-hack/): Axie Infinity’s Ronin Bridge Hack for $551M worth of crypto assets could paradoxically lead to higher rates of blockchain adoption - [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Introduction](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-cryptography-pqc/): Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by... - [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 5 - Consensus Attacks](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-consensus-attacks/): Where centralized systems operate on the basis of centralized permission, blockchain protocols proceed on the basis of decentralized consensus - [Quantum Teleportation](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-teleportation/): Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without... --- # # Detailed Content ## Pages - Published: 2025-09-10 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/contributors/ --- > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-09-05 - Modified: 2025-09-05 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-editorial-policy/ --- > PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each - Published: 2025-08-24 - Modified: 2025-08-24 - URL: https://postquantum.com/postquantum-ai-explainer/ --- > Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI... - Published: 2025-08-19 - Modified: 2025-08-24 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-roadmaps-2025/ --- > I build simple, opinionated tools to help security teams turn hype into action. Each tool is meant for education and scenario exploration - Published: 2025-08-11 - Modified: 2025-08-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-tools/ --- > Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy - Published: 2025-08-10 - Modified: 2025-08-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/contact/ --- > CRQC Readiness Benchmark and Q-Day Estimator helps you make your own prediction for the arrival of CRQC and Q-Day - Published: 2025-08-10 - Modified: 2025-08-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crqc-readiness-benchmark-q-day-estimator/ --- > PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each - Published: 2025-08-10 - Modified: 2025-08-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/pqc-migration-advisor/ --- > PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each - Published: 2025-08-10 - Modified: 2025-08-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-self-assessment-scorecard/ --- > Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI... - Published: 2025-08-10 - Modified: 2025-08-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/appearances/ --- > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-04-28 - Modified: 2025-09-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/license/ --- > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2023-09-17 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/privacy-policy/ --- > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2023-09-17 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/cookie-policy/ --- > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2023-09-17 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/terms-and-conditions/ --- > Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy - Published: 2023-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-05 - URL: https://postquantum.com/marin-ivezic/ --- > Future of Leadership in the Age of AI - Book by Marin Ivezic and Luka Ivezic - Published: 2020-05-16 - Modified: 2025-09-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/iot-wireless-protocols/ --- > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2020-04-11 - Modified: 2025-08-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/marin-q-day-prediction/ --- > Timeline of key historic cyber-kinetic attacks, system malfunctions and key researcher demos targeting cyber-physical systems, IoT, ICS... - Published: 2017-05-20 - Modified: 2025-09-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/timeline-cyber-kinetic/ --- --- ## Posts > Whether you personally believe Q-Day will come in 5 years or 50, the world around you isn’t taking chances - and neither can you. - Published: 2025-09-13 - Modified: 2025-09-14 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-deadlines-set/ - Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum Whether you personally believe Q-Day will come in 5 years or 50, the world around you isn’t taking chances - and neither can you. As a CISO, you’re now being implicitly (and sometimes explicitly) told by every corner of your ecosystem that quantum preparedness is mandatory. Regulators demand it via hard deadlines. Key clients and partners demand it in contracts and RFPs. Insurers will soon demand it as a condition of coverage. Investors and boards demand it as part of prudent risk management. --- > Just a few days ago Waaijer and van Neerven published a paper "A Relational Critique of Bell Locality" in which they analyze Bell experiments... - Published: 2025-09-13 - Modified: 2025-09-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/relational-critique-bell-locality/ - Categories: Industry News Just a few days ago Waaijer and van Neerven published a paper "A Relational Critique of Bell Locality" in which they analyze Bell experiments through the lens of relational quantum mechanics (RQM). For decades, Bell's theorem has been seen as proof that nature is fundamentally nonlocal. Any theory that respects relativity and allows free choice of measurements must obey the CHSH inequality (S ≤ 2). Quantum mechanics predicts - and experiments confirm - violations (S > 2). The conclusion seemed inescapable: reality is not locally causal. This new paper argues this conclusion is a mistake. The authors claim the apparent nonlocality stems from misapplying relativistic principles. --- > The “Brace for Impact” ECDLP challenge suite is a great attempt to translate a looming cryptographic crisis into a concrete set of problems... - Published: 2025-09-05 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ecdlp-challenge-ladder/ - Categories: Industry News The “Brace for Impact” ECDLP challenge suite is a great attempt to translate a looming cryptographic crisis into a concrete set of problems we can grapple with today. It provides a much-needed “ruler” to measure where we stand in the race between encryption and quantum decryption. The choice of Bitcoin’s secp256k1 curve for these challenges ties the abstract math to real economic stakes, lending a sense of urgency (and opportunity) to everyone from Bitcoin developers to national security planners. Most importantly, it empowers the community with an actionable early warning system: as soon as a quantum computer ticks up the ladder, we will know, undeniably, that the time has come to brace for impact and switch our cryptography to higher ground. --- > Don’t mistake the noise of cynicism for the signal of intelligence. If someone validates themselves as a useless cynic - unwilling to provide... - Published: 2025-09-01 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cynicism/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Don’t mistake the noise of cynicism for the signal of intelligence. If someone validates themselves as a useless cynic - unwilling to provide anything beyond scoffs and derision - don’t waste your energy getting dragged into their performative pessimism. Instead, direct your attention to the genuine skeptics and curious contrarians who challenge ideas in good faith. Engage with those asking hard questions and with the enthusiasts pursuing big dreams (but grounding them in data). Those are the debates worth having. The field of quantum computing is built on the terrifyingly difficult work of bending reality to our will, one qubit at a time. That work deserves better than a cynical sneer. It deserves genuine, rigorous, and yes - critical - intelligence. --- > A new peer-reviewed study - “Mapping quantum industry demands to education: a critical analysis of skills, qualifications, and modalities” - Published: 2025-08-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mapping-quantum-industry-education/ - Categories: Industry News A new peer-reviewed study - “Mapping quantum industry demands to education: a critical analysis of skills, qualifications, and modalities,” by Devendrababu et al. has just been published in EPJ Quantum Technology (2025). The paper takes a data-driven look at what the quantum technology job market is really asking for in terms of skills, academic degrees, and training pathways. Covering a broad range of quantum domains from hardware (superconducting, semiconducting, topological, ion-trap, photonic, and more) to software (quantum machine learning, cryptography, error correction) and even emerging areas like quantum sensing and metrology, the study aims to inform how educational programs can better prepare students for careers in quantum technologies. --- > In my opinion, forward-thinking organizations should consider creating a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO) role. - Published: 2025-08-24 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-quantum-officer-cqo/ - Categories: Leadership, Quantum Computing In my opinion, forward-thinking organizations should consider creating a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO) role. Much like those historical electricity executives, a CQO would spearhead the adoption of a disruptive technology that is revolutionary, promising - but widely misunderstood. It’s a provocative idea (even “a job title from Star Trek,” as one commentator quipped ), but it’s quickly moving from speculation to reality. A few bold companies have already appointed CQOs, signaling that quantum tech is becoming a strategic priority, not just a research experiment. I’m personally bullish on quantum’s potential, and while I expect quantum computing to become commoditized in the coming decades (eventually making a CQO as obsolete as the Chief Electricity Officer), I believe that for the next several years a dedicated quantum leader could be invaluable. Here’s why. --- > Magic states are special quantum states that enable the universal operations needed for any quantum algorithm, yet which are not themselves... - Published: 2025-08-20 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/magic-states/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Magic states are special quantum states that enable the universal operations needed for any quantum algorithm, yet which are not themselves easy to produce or protect. In essence, magic states supply the "extra quantum sauce" that elevates a protected quantum computer from what could be emulated on a classical computer to a machine that can outperform classical supercomputers. Recent breakthroughs - from theory and small-scale demonstrations to first experiments on logical (error-corrected) qubits - have shown significant progress in producing and utilizing magic states. --- > Thesis: Migration time to safer cryptography is inversely proportional to an organization’s crypto-agility. - Published: 2025-08-13 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/marins-law-crypto-agility/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Thesis: Migration time to safer cryptography is inversely proportional to an organization’s crypto-agility. Formally: Let A denote an organization’s crypto-agility (0 ≤ A ≤ 1) and Y the wall-clock time required to replace a cryptographic primitive across all in-scope systems. Then Y ≈ K ⁄ A for some complexity constant K. As A → 0, Y → ∞. Corollary: Raising A today shortens all future cryptographic migrations - for quantum threats and for classical breaks, policy shifts, or performance needs. This is the practical twin to Mosca’s inequality. Where Mosca tells you why time is short, my "law" tells you what to build so time bends in your favor: agility. --- > A new research paper from quantum startup Alice & Bob in collaboration with Inria unveils a technique to significantly reduce the cost of magic state - Published: 2025-08-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/alice-bobs-magic-state-paper/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe, France A new research paper from quantum startup Alice & Bob in collaboration with Inria unveils a technique to significantly reduce the cost of magic state generation - a crucial resource for universal fault-tolerant quantum computing. The paper, titled “Unfolded distillation: very low-cost magic state preparation for biased-noise qubits”, describes an error-correction scheme dubbed the “unfolded code” that leverages the unique properties of noise-biased cat qubits. By exploiting the naturally high bias of cat qubits against bit-flip errors, the researchers “unfold” a complex 3D distillation code into a simpler 2D layout. --- > I will try and compare my proposed CRQC Readiness Benchmark with QTT, highlighting fundamental differences in methodology, assumptions... - Published: 2025-08-10 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark-vs-qtt/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day I will try and compare my proposed CRQC Readiness Benchmark with QTT, highlighting fundamental differences in methodology, assumptions, and philosophy, all in an effort to clarify how each approach informs our understanding of the looming “Q-Day.” The goal is to articulate why my benchmark and QTT produce different outlooks (2030s vs. 2050s for RSA-2048), and how both can be used together to guide post-quantum readiness. --- > For three decades, Q-Day has been “just a few years away.” I want to show you how to make your own prediction on when Q-Day will arrive. - Published: 2025-08-10 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/how-to-predict-q-day/ - Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum For three decades, Q-Day has been “just a few years away.” I want to show you how to make your own informed prediction on when Q-Day will arrive. Counting physical qubits by itself is misleading. To break RSA you need error‑corrected logical qubits, long and reliable operation depth, and enough throughput to finish within an attack‑relevant time window. --- > The trouble with quantum computing predictions so far has been that too many have been more speculation than science... - Published: 2025-08-04 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-predictions/ - Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum The trouble with quantum computing predictions so far has been that too many have been more speculation than science, more influenced by bias than by balanced analysis. We have the tools and knowledge to do better. By embracing a data-driven, scenario-based approach, we can turn timeline forecasting from a source of confusion into a valuable planning aid. --- > The Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) is a newly released open-source tool by Cambridge Consultants and the University of Edinburgh... - Published: 2025-08-03 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/qtt-criticism/ - Categories: Q-Day The Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) is a newly released open-source tool by Cambridge Consultants and the University of Edinburgh that aims to forecast when quantum computers will break today’s encryption. It combines quantum resource estimation (using optimized variants of Shor’s algorithm) with hardware development roadmaps to predict when cryptographic protocols will be broken. In other words, QTT estimates how many qubits and runtime are needed to crack something like RSA, then projects forward based on how quickly quantum hardware might improve. This is a much-needed tool – it translates complex research into an interactive format for security planners. I have no criticism of the tool or its authors; in fact, I think QTT is a great resource that could become very useful for the community. However, I do disagree with its default assumptions and demo scenario, which paint an arguably overly conservative timeline for the “Q-Day” when encryption like RSA-2048 falls. --- > To the untrained eye, espionage against scientists can be nearly invisible - it blends into everyday academic or business activity. Certain red flags... - Published: 2025-08-01 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/espionage-quantum/ - Categories: Post-Quantum To the untrained eye, espionage against scientists can be nearly invisible - it blends into everyday academic or business activity. But certain red flags and tactics surface again and again. Below is a consolidated list of common espionage methods (many from my own firsthand cases) used to target quantum tech researchers and organizations: --- > On July 31, 2025, U.S. Senators Peters (D-Mich.) and Blackburn (R-Tenn.) introduced the National Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Strategy Act - Published: 2025-07-31 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-cybersecurity-migration-act/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On July 31, 2025, U.S. Senators Gary Peters (D-Mich.) and Marsha Blackburn (R-Tenn.) introduced the National Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Strategy Act, a bipartisan bill to ensure the federal government prepares for encryption-breaking quantum computers. The legislation directs a White House office (leveraging the NSTC’s ESIX subcommittee) to develop a comprehensive national strategy for post-quantum cybersecurity, and it mandates that federal agencies kick off pilot programs deploying quantum-safe encryption. The goal is to get ahead of “rapidly advancing quantum computers” that could one day bypass modern encryption and leave sensitive data exposed. --- > Quantum sensing technologies are emerging as powerful tools to detect and track UASs, including small and nano-drones that often... - Published: 2025-07-31 - Modified: 2025-09-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-ai-drones/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing, AI Security Quantum sensing technologies are emerging as powerful tools to detect and track UASs, including small and nano-drones that often evade conventional sensors. These quantum sensors, such as quantum radars, quantum LiDARs, atomic magnetometers, and Rydberg RF detectors, exploit phenomena like entanglement, squeezing, and extreme sensitivity of quantum states to reveal faint drone signatures beyond classical limits. However, raw data from both quantum and classical sensors can be weak, noisy, or ambiguous, especially when dealing with tiny drones with low radar cross-sections (~0.01 m²) and minimal emissions. This is where artificial intelligence (AI) becomes indispensable. Modern AI algorithms (deep neural networks, signal classifiers, data fusion models, etc.) play a critical role in processing, interpreting, and enhancing sensor signals, effectively translating subtle quantum-sensor readings into reliable drone detections. --- > AI is reshaping businesses across industries, and corporate boards are increasingly expected to oversee AI strategy, ethics, and risk management - Published: 2025-07-29 - Modified: 2025-09-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/ai-board-oversight/ - Categories: Leadership, AI Security AI is reshaping businesses across industries, and corporate boards are increasingly expected to oversee AI strategy, ethics, and risk management. In fact, the number of S&P 500 companies formally assigning AI oversight to a board committee more than tripled in 2025, and nearly half of Fortune 100 companies now highlight AI expertise in their directors’ qualifications. This surge underlines an urgent need for governance frameworks that keep pace with AI-driven innovation. Boards can no longer afford to treat AI as just an IT issue; it has become a strategic imperative - one that demands informed oversight at the highest level. --- > Organizations may need to begin their quantum-readiness journey with a risk-driven approach rather than a theoretically perfect one. - Published: 2025-07-24 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/risk-driven-quantum-crypto-inventory/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Given the practical challenges, organizations may need to begin their quantum-readiness journey with a risk-driven approach rather than a theoretically perfect one. The essence of this strategy is to focus limited resources where they matter most – addressing the highest quantum-vulnerability risks first and implementing interim safeguards for the rest. Even the U.S. government’s guidance recognizes the need for prioritization. For example, the federal memo mentioned above directs agencies to inventory high-impact systems, high-value assets (HVA), and any systems containing data that must remain sensitive through 2035 before worrying about less critical systems. In other words, not all cryptographic assets pose equal risk, so a sensible plan is to triage and tackle them in order of importance. --- > Quantum Art is an Israeli quantum computing startup focused on developing scalable trapped-ion hardware for quantum computers. - Published: 2025-07-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-art/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Israel Quantum Art is an Israeli quantum computing startup (spun out of the Weizmann Institute of Science in 2022) focused on developing scalable trapped-ion hardware for quantum computers. The company was born out of decades of ion-trap research at Weizmann and the achievement of Israel’s first full-stack quantum computer by its founding team. Led by a team of ~40 physicists and engineers, including veterans from academia and industry (Harvard, Stanford, Intel, etc.), Quantum Art aims to build full-stack, fault-tolerant quantum systems with a novel multi-core trapped-ion architecture. At its core, the company’s mission is to deliver commercially viable, high-qubit-count quantum processors based on trapped ions - leveraging long coherence times and high-fidelity quantum gates - while overcoming the scaling challenges that have so far limited quantum computers to only tens of qubits. In pursuing this, Quantum Art has developed proprietary techniques (multi-qubit gate operations, dynamic optical segmentation, etc.) to push trapped-ion technology toward millions of qubits in the coming decade. --- > Boards do not need to dive into the scientific intricacies of qubits and algorithms, but they do need to recognize that this is an important risk... - Published: 2025-07-19 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-threat-executives-board/ - Categories: Leadership, Post-Quantum Boards do not need to dive into the scientific intricacies of qubits and algorithms, but they do need to recognize that this is a strategically important risk – one that can’t be simply delegated away. It requires the same level of governance attention as other enterprise-level risks like financial compliance, geopolitical factors, or pandemic preparedness. The comforting news is that if organizations act early, the quantum threat can be managed. Think of the proactive stance many companies took with Y2K in the late 1990s – those who started early averted disaster. Similarly here, those who begin preparing for quantum now (even while the technology is still maturing) will be in the best position to avoid chaos later. Early movers might even gain competitive advantages, by earning customer trust through their security resilience or by integrating quantum-safe technologies into their innovation roadmaps. In the end, addressing the quantum cybersecurity threat is about preserving trust. --- > Microsoft’s Azure Quantum team has released a new scientific paper - Distinct Lifetimes for X and Z Loop Measurements in a Majorana Tetron Device - Published: 2025-07-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana1-chip-data/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Microsoft’s Azure Quantum team has released a new scientific paper (Distinct Lifetimes for X and Z Loop Measurements in a Majorana Tetron Device) presenting the first experimental evidence of complementary Pauli-X and Pauli-Z parity measurements on a topological qubit. The results, announced by Microsoft Quantum Technical Fellow Chetan Nayak in a LinkedIn update, showcase the ability to “harness a topoconductor … and engineer a topological qubit that is small, fast, and digitally controlled” . In essence, Microsoft’s Majorana-1 quantum chip – unveiled amidst much fanfare earlier this year – has now demonstrated the two fundamental quantum measurements needed to operate a Majorana-based qubit. This development comes after years of skepticism surrounding Microsoft’s topological qubit approach, and the new data goes a long way toward validating the company’s high-risk, high-reward strategy. --- > On July 7, 2025 the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) published a major paper titled “Quantum-readiness for the financial system: a roadmap" - Published: 2025-07-07 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/bis-quantum-roadmap-banking/ - Categories: Industry News On July 7, 2025 the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) – often called the “central bank of central banks” – published a major paper titled “Quantum-readiness for the financial system: a roadmap.” This BIS Paper No. 158, authored by experts from BIS’s Innovation Hub and several central banks, provides a comprehensive framework to help the global financial sector transition to quantum-safe cryptography. The BIS (an international institution that “fosters international monetary and financial cooperation” among central banks) rarely sounds the alarm on technology issues so explicitly. Their decision to issue a quantum-readiness roadmap is a clear signal that the threat posed by quantum computers to financial cybersecurity has moved from theoretical to tangible – and it demands urgent action across the industry. --- > Quantum readiness is not an exercise in science fiction – it’s a very practical program that yields benefits immediately... - Published: 2025-07-04 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-ciso-budget/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Leadership Quantum readiness is not an exercise in science fiction – it’s a very practical program that yields benefits immediately. Regulators are pushing us all in this direction, which means boards are willing to fund it. The journey forces you to finally catalog your cryptographic assets and clean up long-standing weaknesses, improving your security posture right now. It builds agility so you can handle any crypto curveballs the future throws. It energizes your team and attracts talent by giving them something exciting to work on. And it demonstrates to the world that your organization is on top of emerging threats, thereby inspiring confidence. For a CISO or CIO, that’s a legacy worth achieving. --- > Quantum Brilliance (QB) is an Australian-German quantum computing company developing diamond-based quantum accelerators... - Published: 2025-07-04 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-brilliance/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Australia, Europe, Germany Quantum Brilliance (QB) is an Australian-German quantum computing company (founded in 2019 as a spin-out of Australian National University) developing diamond-based quantum accelerators that operate at room temperature. Their hardware uses nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in synthetic diamond as qubits - defects in a diamond lattice where a nitrogen atom sits adjacent to a missing carbon. NV-center qubits are attractive because diamond’s rigid lattice protects the qubits from environmental noise, giving them the longest coherence times of any room-temperature quantum system. Unlike most quantum computers that require ultra-low temperatures or high vacuum, QB’s devices need no cryogenics or complex laser cooling, allowing them to be smaller, energy-efficient, and deployable in ordinary environments. Strategically, Quantum Brilliance envisions quantum accelerators that can be co-located with classical computing hardware (in data centers, HPC facilities, vehicles, satellites, etc.), integrating seamlessly as “quantum co-processors” in heterogeneous computing systems. --- > Benchmarking quantum capabilities for cryptography is both critical and challenging. We can’t rely on any single metric like qubit count... - Published: 2025-07-03 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day Benchmarking quantum capabilities for cryptography is both critical and challenging. We can’t rely on any single metric like qubit count to tell us how near we are to breaking RSA-2048. A combination of logical qubit count, error-corrected circuit depth, and operational speed must reach certain thresholds in unison. Existing benchmarks – Quantum Volume, Algorithmic Qubits, etc. – each address parts of this, but a CRQC-specific yardstick brings them together. By focusing on a concrete goal (factoring a 2048-bit RSA key), I defined a composite measure of progress. This new benchmark suggests that, as of 2025, we are perhaps on the order of one-tenth of the way there (in capability), but the pace of improvement is accelerating. With major leaps in algorithm efficiency and hardware roadmaps aiming at fault-tolerant machines by 2029, we could plausibly hit the needed 1000 logical qubits and 10^12 operations within ~5–7 years. That puts Q-Day around 2030 – aligning with the latest expert predictions that RSA-2048 will fall in the “very early 2030s” timeframe. --- > On July 2, 2025, the European Commission unveiled the Quantum Europe Strategy – a comprehensive roadmap - Published: 2025-07-03 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-europe-strategy/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe On July 2, 2025, the European Commission unveiled the Quantum Europe Strategy – a comprehensive roadmap to transform Europe into a “quantum industrial powerhouse” and global leader in quantum technologies by 2030. This strategy arrives at a pivotal moment: quantum computing, communication, and sensing are advancing from lab experiments to real-world applications, promising breakthroughs from ultra-secure communications to revolutionary medical imaging. --- > Exactly ten years ago, on July 3, 2015, we published the first version of Future of Leadership in the Age of AI. At that time... - Published: 2025-07-01 - Modified: 2025-09-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-of-leadership-in-the-age-of-ai-decade/ - Categories: Leadership, AI Security Exactly ten years ago, on July 3, 2015, we published the first version of Future of Leadership in the Age of AI. At that time, most discussions about artificial intelligence revolved around automating blue-collar jobs and routine manual tasks. Our contrarian view – based on hands-on experience implementing early AI systems in a large organization – was that AI would impact knowledge work even more profoundly. We envisioned AI evolving into super-smart pattern recognition and prediction machines, capable of augmenting or performing many cognitive tasks traditionally done by white-collar professionals. In other words, AI wouldn’t stop at the factory floor; it would move up the org chart into offices and boardrooms. This perspective was unusual then, but it has since been proven correct. In fact, as one early article presciently noted, AI’s effect on the workplace “will not be limited merely to repetitive, production line-type jobs” and is “increasingly entering the realm of highly trained knowledge workers”. We even argued that managers and executives would eventually work alongside AI, and that’s exactly the world we now see around us. (And have even published a comic on this topic at Working With AI). --- > Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI) is a Yale University spin-out that has pioneered a novel approach to superconducting quantum computing... - Published: 2025-07-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-circuits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI) is a Yale University spin-out that has pioneered a novel approach to superconducting quantum computing focused on hardware-efficient error correction. Co-founded in 2017 by leading Yale physicists (including Robert Schoelkopf, Michel Devoret, and Luigi Frunzio), QCI’s mission is to accelerate the path to fault-tolerant quantum computers by "correcting first, then scaling". Unlike many competitors in the superconducting qubit arena that emphasize scaling up qubit count, QCI’s strategy centers on a dual-rail cavity qubit architecture with built-in error detection at the hardware level. This distinctive hardware platform - integrating 3D microwave resonators (cavities) and transmon circuits - aims to deliver more reliable qubits with higher effective fidelity, thereby enabling consistent and repeatable quantum operations. In the broader quantum landscape, QCI stands out as a full-stack provider prioritizing fault tolerance from the outset, in contrast to the conventional NISQ-era approach of adding qubits first and worrying about errors later. --- > QuiX Quantum is a Dutch quantum technology company specializing in photonic quantum computing hardware. Founded in 2019... - Published: 2025-06-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quix-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Europe, Netherlands QuiX Quantum is a Dutch quantum technology company specializing in photonic quantum computing hardware. Founded in 2019 as a University of Twente spin-off, QuiX has quickly grown into a European leader in photonic quantum processors and systems. Unlike matter-based qubit platforms that use stationary quantum bits on a cryogenic chip, QuiX’s approach encodes qubits in photons - particles of light that serve as “flying” qubits traveling through optical circuits. This photonic modality allows quantum operations at room temperature and at light-speed, leveraging integrated photonic chips (made of low-loss silicon nitride) as the core processing units. By building quantum interferometer chips and combining them with single-photon sources and detectors, QuiX aims to realize a universal photonic quantum computer capable of executing any quantum algorithm. --- > Quantum readiness / PQC migration is arguably the largest and most complicated digital infrastructure overhaul in history. Yes, far bigger than Y2K... - Published: 2025-06-28 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-pqc-migration/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Leadership Preparing for the quantum era is arguably the largest and most complicated digital infrastructure overhaul in history. Yes, far bigger than Y2K, because back in 1999 we didn’t have millions of network-connected “things” to worry about. Yet despite clear warnings and rapidly approaching milestones, far too many organizations still treat quantum readiness as something to punt into next year – or worse, as a simple one-click software update. It won’t be that simple. Not by a long shot. If you haven’t already started planning your post-quantum migration, you’re not just behind schedule – you may already be late. --- > On June 24, 2025, a House Oversight Subcommittee held a hearing titled “Preparing for the Quantum Age: When Cryptography Breaks.” - Published: 2025-06-26 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/preparing-for-the-quantum-age-hearing/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On June 24, 2025, a House Oversight Subcommittee held a hearing titled “Preparing for the Quantum Age: When Cryptography Breaks.” This hearing convened government, industry, and academic experts to discuss the looming threat quantum computing poses to our current cryptographic systems and what the United States should do to prepare. Witnesses included (in my opinion a great selection) Dr. Scott Crowder of IBM, Marisol Cruz Cain of the Government Accountability Office (GAO), Denis Mandich of Qrypt, and Professor Brenda Rubenstein of Brown University. The session was prompted in part by recent GAO reports warning that quantum computers could eventually break widely used encryption. Lawmakers and experts largely agreed on the urgency of “quantum readiness” – modernizing encryption and systems before a powerful quantum computer arrives – but they differed on timelines and approaches. Below I tried to summarize key themes from the hearing and offer personal perspective on these issues. --- > AI cannot break modern encryption. The reasons are fundamental: Mathematical Hardness, Cryptographic Design... - Published: 2025-06-26 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-break-encryption/ - Categories: AI Security, Post-Quantum AI cannot break modern encryption. The reasons are fundamental: Mathematical Hardness, Cryptographic Design, Empirical Track Record, Quantum Contrast, Expert Consensus. --- > On June 23, 2025 Canada has issued a new roadmap for migrating the Government of Canada’s IT systems to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). - Published: 2025-06-26 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/canada-pqc-roadmap/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Canada On June 23, 2025 The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security (Cyber Centre) has issued a new roadmap for migrating the Government of Canada’s IT systems to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). Effective June 23, 2025, this guidance, "Roadmap for the migration to post-quantum cryptography for the Government of Canada (ITSM.40.001)" lays out clear deadlines and expectations for all federal departments and agencies to transition their cryptographic systems to quantum-safe standards. It applies across non-classified federal IT systems, covering all Government of Canada networks handling UNCLASSIFIED, Protected A, and Protected B information (systems managing classified or Protected C data are addressed separately). The goal is straightforward: “all instances of public-key cryptography must be migrated” to protect Canadian systems and citizens’ data from the looming quantum threat. --- > The U.S. GAO has issued a June 2025 report titled “Quantum Computing: Leadership Needed to Coordinate Cyber Threat Mitigation Strategy” - Published: 2025-06-25 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/us-gao-quantum-report/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) has issued a June 2025 report titled “Quantum Computing: Leadership Needed to Coordinate Cyber Threat Mitigation Strategy” (GAO-25-108590). GAO makes many spot-on recommendations – calling for strong federal leadership, workforce development, investment in post-quantum readiness, and securing the quantum tech supply chain – and I wholeheartedly agree with these points. However, I strongly disagree with GAO’s suggested timeline that a cryptography-breaking quantum computer is still 10–20 years away. In my view, the quantum threat is racing toward us faster than official estimates imply, and we must respond with the urgency of a present crisis. --- > On June 23, 2025, the European Commission and EU Member States unveiled a roadmap to transition Europe to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) - Published: 2025-06-24 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-pqc-roadmap/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe On June 23, 2025, the European Commission and EU Member States unveiled a coordinated roadmap to transition Europe’s digital infrastructure to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This plan lays out a clear timeline for moving to quantum-resistant encryption, recognizing the urgent threat that future quantum computers pose to classical cryptography. PQC is seen as a key measure to deflect advanced cyber threats in the coming "quantum era." The roadmap’s recommendations aim to synchronize efforts across all member states so that Europe’s data and communications remain secure against quantum-enabled attackers. --- > Microsoft Quantum's researchers have introduced a new family of four-dimensional (4D) geometric quantum error-correcting codes - Published: 2025-06-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsoft-4d-quantum-error-correction/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Microsoft Quantum's researchers have introduced a new family of four-dimensional (4D) geometric quantum error-correcting codes that promise to dramatically outperform today’s standard 2D surface codes. Revealed in a new preprint "A Topologically Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computer with Four Dimensional Geometric Codes" (arXiv:2506.15130v1) and an accompanying Microsoft blog post, these novel 4D LDPC codes (low-density parity-check codes) achieve 1,000-fold lower error rates and require far fewer physical qubits per logical qubit than the best existing approaches. In other words, by leveraging higher-dimensional structures (a “tesseract” lattice in four dimensions), Microsoft claims it can reach the ultra-low error levels needed for reliable quantum computing with a small fraction of the qubit overhead previously thought necessary. The new codes can correct errors in a single shot (one round of detection and recovery), potentially speeding up quantum computations and simplifying hardware design. If validated, this could be a significant milestone on the road to scalable fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC). --- > IonQ has unveiled an accelerated quantum computing roadmap that, if realized, could deliver a CRQC by 2028... - Published: 2025-06-19 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ionqroadmap-crqc/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IonQ has unveiled an accelerated quantum computing roadmap that, if realized, could deliver a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) as early as 2028. In a June 2025 announcement, the Maryland-based quantum startup – known for its trapped-ion technology – outlined dramatic scaling milestones enabled by recent acquisitions and technical breakthroughs. By leveraging Oxford Ionics’ chip-integrated ion traps and Lightsynq’s photonic interconnects (IoN's recent acquisitions), IonQ plans to boost its qubit counts by orders of magnitude. The company’s new timeline projects a jump from today’s tens of qubits to ~20,000 physical qubits by 2028, spread across two entangled chips, and reaching ~2,000,000 physical qubits by 2030. Crucially, IonQ estimates this will equate to about 1,600 error-corrected logical qubits in 2028, and on the order of 40,000–80,000 logical qubits by 2030 as error-correction improves . For context, “logical” qubits are the error-protected bits after applying quantum error correction – the effective computing units needed for breaking cryptography. --- > It’s time to mark a controversial date on the calendar: 2030 is the year RSA-2048 will be broken by a quantum computer - or the Q-Day. - Published: 2025-06-19 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-rsa-broken-2030/ - Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum - Tags: featured It’s time to mark a controversial date on the calendar: 2030 is the year RSA-2048 will be broken by a quantum computer. That’s my bold prediction, and I don’t make it lightly. In cybersecurity circles, the countdown to “Q-Day” or Y2Q (the day a cryptographically relevant quantum computer cracks our public-key encryption) has been a topic of intense debate. Lately, the noise has become deafening: some doom-and-gloom reports insist the quantum cryptopocalypse is just a year or two away, while hardened skeptics claim it’s so distant as to never happen. The truth lies between these extremes. A sober analysis of the latest breakthroughs shows that Q-Day is not here yet and won’t happen tomorrow – but it’s also no longer on the hazy horizon of “maybe never.” In fact, recent advances have dramatically sharpened the timeline, bringing the fall of RSA into the plausible timeframe of around 2030. --- > Oxford Ionics is a UK-based quantum computing company specializing in trapped-ion technology, distinguished by its use of microwave-based... - Published: 2025-06-18 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oxford-ionics/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United Kingdom Oxford Ionics is a UK-based quantum computing company specializing in trapped-ion technology, distinguished by its use of microwave-based “electronic” quantum gates instead of the laser-based control typical of most ion-trap systems. Co-founded in 2019 by Dr. Chris Ballance and Dr. Tom Harty - both leading ion-trap researchers - the company has rapidly built a reputation for record-setting performance in qubit fidelity. Oxford Ionics integrates all key control components onto semiconductor chips (“Electronic Qubit Control”), enabling qubits to be manipulated by on-chip electrodes and currents rather than large optical setups. This approach yields exceptionally high gate accuracies and a compact hardware footprint, as demonstrated by Oxford Ionics’ world-record single- and two-qubit gate fidelities achieved in 2024. The startup’s unique platform attracted major industry support and led to full-stack quantum computers delivered for national R&D programs in the UK and Germany by 2024. --- > June 10 2025 IBM made a landmark announcement outlining a clear path to build the world’s first large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer... - Published: 2025-06-14 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-quantum-roadmap-2029/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States June 10 2025 IBM made a landmark announcement outlining a clear path to build the world’s first large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer by the year 2029. Codenamed IBM Quantum “Starling,” this planned system will leverage a new scalable architecture to achieve on the order of 200 logical (error-corrected) qubits capable of executing 100 million quantum gates in a single computation. IBM’s quantum leaders described this as “cracking the code to quantum error correction” – a breakthrough turning the long-held dream of useful quantum computing from fragile theory into an engineering reality. --- > Physicists at the University of Oxford have set a new world record for quantum logic accuracy, achieving single-qubit gate error rates below 10^-7 - Published: 2025-06-13 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/oxford-qubit-gate-error/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom Physicists at the University of Oxford have set a new world record for quantum logic accuracy, achieving single-qubit gate error rates below 10^-7 – meaning fidelities exceeding 99.99999%. The breakthrough, reported in a study published in Physical Review Letters in June 2025 marks the lowest error ever recorded for any quantum computing platform. “As far as we are aware, this is the most accurate qubit operation ever recorded anywhere in the world,” said Professor David Lucas of Oxford’s Dept. of Physics. “It is an important step toward building practical quantum computers that can tackle real-world problems.” --- > A few of Forbes’s examples are genuinely promising; several smash together disparate ideas without noting the engineering road‑map... - Published: 2025-06-13 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/forbes-20-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Industry News A few of Forbes’s examples are genuinely promising; several smash together disparate ideas without noting the engineering road‑map; and some miss key caveats that separate “demo‑ready” from “production‑ready.” The authors could have done a sharper job sorting mature use cases (think quantum key distribution) from long shots (say, universal quantum AI on petabyte‑scale data)—and of explaining the hardware, algorithmic, and economic hurdles in between. That said, knee‑jerk contrarianism is just as unhelpful as uncritical hype. As I argued in my recent essay on Quantum Contrarianism, pointing out a few overstatements does not prove the entire field is snake oil. The signal sits somewhere between the boosters and the naysayers. Below is a quick, use-case-by-use-case rundown: where Forbes is on-target, where it overreaches, and where the signal is still buried in marketing noise. --- > On June 6, 2025, President Donald J. Trump signed Executive Order titled “Sustaining Select Efforts to Strengthen the Nation’s Cybersecurity” - Published: 2025-06-07 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/trump-cybersecurity-order-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States A New Executive Order Reshapes Cybersecurity Policy: On June 6, 2025, President Donald J. Trump signed a sweeping Executive Order titled “Sustaining Select Efforts to Strengthen the Nation’s Cybersecurity”, which explicitly amends two earlier orders: Obama-era Executive Order 13694 (2015) and the outgoing Biden administration’s Executive Order 14144 (January 16, 2025). This new order largely preserves the overall framework of those prior cybersecurity initiatives, but it strikes or revises many specific mandates – particularly those related to post-quantum cryptography, digital identity, and other advanced security measures. In essence, the Trump administration is paring back several forward-looking cybersecurity requirements put in place in late 2024, while doubling down on a more narrow set of “core” cyber defenses. One of the most significant changes is the rollback of quantum-resistant security mandates. Executive Order 14144, signed in the final days of the previous administration, had directed federal agencies to begin adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) “as quickly as feasible” and even urged technology vendors and allied nations to follow suit. That ambitious push has now been curtailed. --- > Achieving a comprehensive cryptographic inventory often requires combining multiple tools and methodologies. Each solution... - Published: 2025-06-03 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-inventory-vendors/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Achieving a comprehensive cryptographic inventory often requires combining multiple tools and methodologies. Each solution above has blind spots: one might excel at catching code-level issues but miss network usage, another might see network traffic but miss dormant code, etc. Organizations starting a crypto inventory (especially as part of PQC readiness) should evaluate these tools in terms of their environment: for example, pairing a passive network sensor with an agent-based host scanner and a static code analyzer will cover most bases – network, runtime, and code. Many of the vendors themselves support integrations (as seen by partnerships between endpoint and network tool makers). The goal is to aggregate all findings, typically into a unified inventory database or CBOM repository, where overlapping data can be correlated and gaps identified. --- > Q-Day, sometimes called “Y2Q” or the “Quantum Apocalypse”, refers to the future moment when a quantum computer becomes powerful enough - Published: 2025-06-02 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q/ - Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum Q-Day, sometimes called “Y2Q” or the “Quantum Apocalypse”, refers to the future moment when a quantum computer becomes powerful enough to break modern encryption algorithms. In other words, it’s the day a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) can crack the public-key cryptography (like RSA or ECC) that underpins our digital security. The term “Y2Q” stands for “years to quantum,” an explicit nod to the Y2K bug - but unlike Y2K’s fixed deadline, the timing of Q-Day is unknown. It won’t announce itself with a clear date or time. There will be no midnight turn of the century when the problem visibly triggers. Instead, Q-Day could arrive without fanfare: one day all our encrypted data and communications appear normal, but behind the scenes one of the fundamental pillars of digital trust has crumbled. --- > A new breakthrough research preprint by Google Quantum AI scientist Craig Gidney has dramatically lowered the estimated resources... - Published: 2025-05-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-breakthrough-rsa-2048/ - Categories: Industry News A new research preprint by Google Quantum AI scientist Craig Gidney has dramatically lowered the estimated resources needed to break RSA-2048 encryption using a quantum computer. Gidney’s May 2025 paper, “How to factor 2048 bit RSA integers with less than a million noisy qubits,” argues that a fault-tolerant quantum computer with under 1 million qubits could factor a 2048-bit RSA key in under one week. This is a stunning 20× reduction in qubit count compared to Gidney’s own 2019 estimate, which required ~20 million qubits and about 8 hours of runtime for the same task. The new approach trades a longer runtime for far fewer qubits, signaling major algorithmic and error-correction advances in quantum factoring. --- > IonQ is a publicly traded leader in trapped‑ion quantum computing whose strategy is to reach useful fault tolerance with fewer physical qubits... - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ionq/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States IonQ is a publicly traded leader in trapped‑ion quantum computing whose strategy is to reach useful fault tolerance with fewer physical qubits by maximizing fidelity, connectivity, and modularity. Rather than racing raw qubit counts in noisy regimes, IonQ’s thesis is that very clean ions (identical atomic qubits with long coherence and native all-to-all coupling) can slash error‑correction overhead and bring logical qubits online earlier. That philosophy underpins the company’s newly accelerated 2025-2030 roadmap: migrate from today’s linear chains to chip‑integrated 2D ion traps for dense on-chip scaling, add photonic interconnects with quantum memory to stitch chips into one machine, and drive physical error rates low enough that small‑distance codes already deliver five-nines-plus logical fidelities. --- > IQM Quantum Computers is a Finland‑based hardware company building superconducting (transmon) quantum processors... - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/iqm/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Europe, Finland IQM Quantum Computers is a Finland‑based hardware company building superconducting (transmon) quantum processors with a distinctly European strategy: deliver on‑premises systems tightly integrated with high‑performance computing (HPC) centers while co-designing architectures for error correction and, ultimately, fault tolerance. Rather than focus on cloud-only access or headline qubit counts, IQM emphasizes deployable machines, open low-level control for researchers, and chip topologies tailored to quantum error-correcting codes. Its near‑term deliverables: 54-, 150-, and 300-qubit systems for LRZ (Germany) and VTT (Finland); are positioned as stepping stones toward hundreds of logical qubits by around 2030 and, longer term, million-qubit-class fault-tolerant systems. Key technical levers include high‑fidelity transmons, tunable couplers, and two complementary layouts (“Crystal” grids and “Star” resonator hubs) intended to make quantum LDPC codes more resource-efficient than conventional surface-code lattices. --- > Microsoft Majorana Topological Quantum Computing - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/microsoft/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Microsoft’s quantum program is defined by a long‑bet on topological qubits - Majorana‑based devices designed to suppress errors at the hardware level - paired with a near-term, market-facing push through Azure Quantum. Publicly, Microsoft frames its roadmap in three phases: Foundational (prove and control Majorana modes), Resilient (demonstrate error-corrected logical qubits on a small system), and Scale (manufacture at CMOS-like volumes to reach millions of qubits). After years of materials work and device re-design, Microsoft reported the key Foundational steps (Majorana signatures and controllable pairs) and, by 2025, unveiled a “Majorana 1” prototype chip intended to exercise braiding‑style operations. --- > Nord Quantique is a Canadian quantum computing startup focused on building fault-tolerant quantum computers through innovative... - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/nord-quantique/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Canada Nord Quantique is a Canadian quantum computing startup (founded in 2020 in Sherbrooke, Quebec) focused on building fault-tolerant quantum computers through innovative hardware design. The company’s mission centers on overcoming the main bottleneck in quantum computing - quantum error correction - by integrating error resilience directly into the hardware architecture. Unlike conventional approaches that require large numbers of physical qubits to encode a single logical qubit, Nord Quantique pursues a more hardware-efficient paradigm using bosonic qubits. In this design, quantum information is stored in high-quality electromagnetic modes (oscillators) rather than in individual two-level qubits, allowing errors to be corrected within each physical unit. By leveraging the large Hilbert space of superconducting resonators (cavities) and specialized quantum codes (notably the Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill, or GKP, bosonic code), Nord Quantique aims to drastically reduce the qubit overhead needed for fault tolerance. This strategy positions the company at the forefront of efforts to achieve practical, error-corrected quantum computing sooner than would be possible with brute-force, multi-qubit error correction techniques. --- > Pasqal is a French pioneer in neutral-atom quantum computing, building large, reconfigurable arrays of laser‑trapped Rydberg atoms - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/pasqal/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Europe, France Pasqal is a French pioneer in neutral-atom quantum computing, building large, reconfigurable arrays of laser‑trapped Rydberg atoms and delivering them as on‑prem accelerators for HPC centers and industrial labs. Unlike many peers that separate “today’s NISQ” from “tomorrow’s FTQC,” Pasqal’s strategy is explicitly continuous: ship useful analog/digital processors now, and upgrade the same platform - via photonic‑integrated control, higher fidelities, and modular scaling - into a fault‑tolerant machine by the end of the decade. --- > PsiQuantum is a Silicon Valley-based startup taking a fundamentally different approach: photonic quantum computing. - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/psiquantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States PsiQuantum is a Silicon Valley-based startup taking a fundamentally different approach: photonic quantum computing. Their goal from the outset has been to build a large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer using photons, and they famously stated they need on the order of 1 million physical qubits (photons) for this and intend to achieve that by the late 2020s. While extremely secretive, some information has emerged through their partnerships and the DARPA program that give insight into their roadmap. --- > QuEra Computing is a Boston-based quantum computing company pioneering neutral-atom quantum processors. - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quera/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States QuEra Computing is a Boston-based quantum computing company pioneering neutral-atom quantum processors. Built on research from Harvard and MIT, QuEra operates the world’s largest publicly accessible quantum computer (the 256-qubit Aquila system on Amazon Braket) and is aggressively pursuing fault-tolerant architectures. In early 2025 QuEra secured a major $230 million financing (with investors like Google and SoftBank) to accelerate development of a “useful” fully-fledged quantum computer within the next 3-5 years. This funding and QuEra’s recent technical breakthroughs underscore an ambitious roadmap focused on scalability and error correction using neutral atoms, aiming to deliver practical quantum advantage on an aggressive timescale. --- > Rigetti Computing is a full-stack quantum hardware company specializing in superconducting qubit processors. - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/rigetti/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Rigetti Computing is a full-stack quantum hardware company specializing in superconducting qubit processors. Rigetti’s qubits are implemented as Josephson-junction-based circuits (transmons) operated at milli-Kelvin temperatures inside dilution refrigerators. This platform offers extremely fast gate speeds (on the order of tens of nanoseconds) and leverages mature semiconductor-fabrication techniques for scalability. Rigetti’s strategy centers on scaling up superconducting qubit counts while improving fidelity and pursuing quantum error correction toward fault-tolerant systems. --- > Xanadu is a Toronto-based quantum computing company pioneering photonic (light-based) quantum processors. - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/xanadu/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Canada Xanadu is a Toronto-based quantum computing company pioneering photonic (light-based) quantum processors. Founded in 2016 by CEO Christian Weedbrook, the venture has quickly become a leader in continuous-variable photonic quantum computing hardware and software. Xanadu’s approach leverages squeezed-light photons as qubits - allowing operations at room temperature and compatibility with existing fiber-optic networks - in contrast to the cryogenic setups required by superconducting or trapped-ion systems. The company’s long-term mission is to build a fault-tolerant quantum computing data center in Canada by the end of this decade. Toward this goal, Xanadu has developed unique photonic qubit encodings (notably the Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill (GKP) bosonic qubit states) that can encode error-resilient quantum information in light. By embedding error-correction at the physical qubit level and exploiting the natural networking of photonics, Xanadu aims to scale up to utility-scale quantum machines that are both powerful and widely accessible. --- > Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) is a young entrant in the quantum computing race that has charted a strikingly different course from its larger rivals. - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-computing-inc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) is a young entrant in the quantum computing race that has charted a strikingly different course from its larger rivals. Rather than building superconducting or ion-trap processors requiring extreme isolation, QCI focuses on photonic quantum machines that operate at room temperature and even embrace environmental noise - a paradigm it calls Entropy Quantum Computing. In theory, this approach allows QCI’s devices (branded the “Dirac” series) to solve certain optimization problems today, without the overhead of cryogenics or error correction. QCI has aggressively promoted its technology as a practical quantum solution for complex problems in logistics, finance, and more. However, recent revelations have cast a shadow over the company’s claims. In early 2025, a short-seller report accused QCI of grossly overstating key achievements - from its partnership with NASA to the functionality of its products - suggesting that some of QCI’s narrative was more hype than reality These allegations, now the subject of shareholder lawsuits, have put QCI in the spotlight for all the wrong reasons. Amid both bold innovation and brewing controversy, QCI’s journey epitomizes the promise and pitfalls faced by startups in the quantum industry. --- > Quantinuum, formed by the 2021 merger of Honeywell Quantum Solutions and Cambridge Quantum, is another leader in trapped-ion - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantinuum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Quantinuum, formed by the 2021 merger of Honeywell Quantum Solutions and Cambridge Quantum, is another leader in trapped-ion quantum computing. It combines Honeywell’s hardware prowess with Cambridge’s algorithm/software expertise. Quantinuum’s roadmap is notably direct about pursuing fault tolerance, and they’ve recently accelerated their timeline. --- > The saga of Quantum Computing Inc. is a stark illustration of what happens when hype becomes unmoored from truth. - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-winter-warning/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The saga of Quantum Computing Inc. is a stark illustration of what happens when hype becomes unmoored from truth. If the quantum field falls into the trap of overselling and under-delivering, we will hand ammunition to detractors and possibly induce the very “quantum winter” we all want to avoid. Investors and enthusiasts should indeed be excited by progress, but also clear-eyed: practical quantum computing is not here yet, and any company claiming otherwise (or touting suspiciously outsized achievements) deserves heavy scrutiny. Conversely, researchers and companies should feel empowered to say “this is hard, and will take time” without fearing that candor will scare off support. In the long run, transparency builds credibility, and credibility sustains investment far more than sensational claims that fall apart. --- > For universities and tech transfer offices (TTOs), understanding global diverse quantum innovation ecosystems is more than a matter of curiosity... - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/global-quantum-innovation/ - Categories: Quantum Commercialization - Tags: China, Europe, Middle East, United States For universities and tech transfer offices (TTOs), understanding global diverse quantum innovation ecosystems is more than a matter of curiosity – it’s a practical guide for positioning academic spin‑offs for success on the world stage. Government investment is a key differentiator: by 2025, governments worldwide have committed over $40 billion in public funding for quantum technology. How those funds are deployed, however, varies dramatically. In this article, we survey how major regions – from China’s top-down push to Europe’s collaborative networks to the U.S.’s market-driven model – are building their quantum tech sectors, and we analyze what these models mean for university spin‑outs. The key takeaway: by learning from global approaches, local TTOs can better secure funding, forge partnerships, and navigate the emerging quantum economy. --- > Fujitsu, a Japanese IT and computing giant, has emerged as a serious player in quantum computing through a multi-pronged strategy spanning... - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/fujitsu/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Japan Fujitsu, a Japanese IT and computing giant, has emerged as a serious player in quantum computing through a multi-pronged strategy spanning cutting-edge quantum hardware and quantum-inspired annealing solutions. The company is pursuing one of the most ambitious quantum roadmaps to date - developing a 10,000+ qubit superconducting quantum computer by 2030 - with a focus on achieving practical advantage using fault-tolerant logical qubits. Fujitsu’s approach uniquely combines its heritage in high-performance computing (it co-developed the Fugaku supercomputer) with new quantum technologies, all under a “made-in-Japan” initiative. By leveraging both digital annealers (classical CMOS hardware that mimics quantum annealing) and superconducting quantum processors, Fujitsu aims to bridge current computational needs and the future era of true quantum advantage. The result is a broad, hardware-centered program positioning Fujitsu alongside global quantum leaders, but with its own strengths in hybrid HPC integration and a clear goal of building a fault-tolerant quantum computer in the coming decade. --- > Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC) is a UK-based quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-out from the University of Oxford. - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United Kingdom Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC) is a UK-based quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-out from the University of Oxford. It has emerged as a leading hardware developer focused on building commercially useful quantum computers for real-world applications. OQC was the first European provider of Quantum-Compute-as-a-Service (QCaaS), delivering enterprise-grade quantum systems via the cloud and even deploying them in standard commercial data centers. At the core of OQC’s technology is its proprietary “Coaxmon” architecture - a three-dimensional superconducting qubit design (a variant of the transmon) that places qubit components on opposite sides of a substrate to simplify wiring and improve coherence. By leveraging this 3D coaxial approach, OQC aims to overcome some scaling limitations of planar superconducting circuits while maintaining compatibility with proven microwave control techniques. --- > ORCA Computing is a U.K.-based quantum computing company that builds photonic quantum processors using light (single photons)... - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/orca-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United Kingdom ORCA Computing is a U.K.-based quantum computing company (spun out of the University of Oxford in 2019) that builds photonic quantum processors using light (single photons) traveling through optical fiber. Its mission is to make quantum computing a practical reality by delivering near-term quantum accelerators for tasks like machine learning, while concurrently developing a path toward large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computers. ORCA’s approach centers on a modular, fiber-interconnected architecture - essentially full-stack photonic systems constructed from telecom-grade components (lasers, fibers, switches, detectors, etc.) This design aims to leverage photonics’ advantages (low noise, no need for cryogenics, natural networking via fiber) to achieve scalability and usability beyond what “cumbersome, fragile, and costly” quantum setups have offered to date. --- > Planqc is a Munich-based quantum computing startup developing a neutral-atom quantum computing platform - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/planqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Europe, Germany Planqc is a Munich-based quantum computing startup (founded in 2022 as a Max-Planck-Institute spin-off) developing a neutral-atom quantum computing platform. The company’s core approach is to store quantum information in individual ultra-cold atoms that are trapped in optical lattices - effectively using nature’s identical atoms as qubits. By leveraging techniques from atomic clocks, high-resolution quantum gas microscopes, and fast Rydberg-mediated gates, planqc aims to build scalable, digital quantum processors operating at or near room temperature. This distinguishes planqc’s platform from superconducting or ion-trap qubit technologies that require specialized chips and cryogenics. With strong backing from German research institutions and investors, planqc has set out an ambitious roadmap toward universal, fault-tolerant quantum computers comprising thousands of qubits, positioning itself as a European leader in neutral-atom quantum hardware. --- > Quandela is a French quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-off from the Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (C2N) - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quandela/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Europe, France Quandela is a French quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-off from the Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (C2N) in Paris. It has established itself as a pioneer in photonic quantum computing, focusing on single-photon-based qubits and integrated photonic circuits. Quandela’s core modality is optical (photonic) quantum computing, leveraging single photons as qubits. This approach differentiates it from superconducting or trapped-ion platforms, enabling operation largely at room temperature and simpler cooling requirements. In the global quantum ecosystem, Quandela is one of the leading proponents of photonic quantum hardware, alongside international peers like PsiQuantum and Xanadu, and is Europe’s foremost photonic quantum computing vendor. By combining expertise in semiconductor quantum light sources and optical circuits, Quandela is building universal gate-based quantum processors based on light, with the aim of achieving scalable and fault-tolerant quantum computers. The company is vertically integrated (full-stack), providing not only hardware but also a software stack (e.g. the Perceval quantum programming framework) and cloud access to its devices, positioning it as a comprehensive player in the quantum ecosystem. --- > Intel’s quantum computing program has carved a distinctive path, marrying cutting-edge quantum research with the might of silicon manufacturing - Published: 2025-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/intel/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Intel’s quantum computing program has carved a distinctive path, marrying cutting-edge quantum research with the might of advanced silicon manufacturing. Over the past several years, Intel progressed from superconducting qubit test chips (17 and 49 qubits) to a focus on silicon spin qubits, culminating in the 12-qubit Tunnel Falls chip in 2023. Alongside qubit chips, Intel engineered a unique cryo-control architecture: the Horse Ridge I/II cryogenic CMOS controllers at 4 K and the recent Pando Tree demultiplexer at millikelvin temperatures address the wiring and control scalability issue head-on. This two-tier control system drastically reduces the number of cables needed as qubit counts grow - a novel solution to one of quantum computing’s knottiest engineering problems (the “wiring bottleneck” that would otherwise make a large cryostat unmanageable). Intel’s hardware iterations have consistently aimed at improving the technical readiness for scale: better coherence (through materials and design), higher gate fidelities, more qubits, and integrated control, all while using a manufacturable platform. Intel’s system architecture is designed with fault tolerance in mind from day one. The company is pursuing quantum error correction via a 2D array of spin qubits with nearest-neighbor coupling - ideal for the surface code (each qubit has four neighbors in a lattice for error-checking). Intel has emphasized improving qubit fidelity (reporting 99.9% single-qubit fidelity in silicon devices) and is working to push two-qubit fidelities into the error-correctable regime. Equally, Intel tackled the control automation needed for QEC: its Horse Ridge and Pando Tree chips allow controlling many qubits with minimal external wiring, which will be vital for executing rapid, parallel error-correcting operations across a large array. With 12 physical qubits today, Intel is far from threatening cryptography; nonetheless, the technologies it is developing (dense qubit integration, high fidelities, and massive multiplexed control) are exactly those needed for a CRQC-class machine. Intel acknowledges that we are “years away from large-scale implementation” of quantum for real-world problems like cryptography. That said, if Intel’s approach succeeds, it could yield a quantum computer that is manufacturable at scale - meaning once the fundamental hurdles are overcome, scaling to the millions of qubits needed for CRQC could accelerate rapidly. Intel’s track record in quantum is characterized by steady innovation and partnership. It has delivered a series of pioneering devices (superconducting and spin qubit chips, Horse Ridge controllers) on a roughly yearly cadence, each addressing a key challenge to scalability. Intel has also actively engaged with academia and government - from QuTech in Europe to LQC in the U.S. - to share devices and knowledge. The company has demonstrated transparency by publishing research in top journals and by frankly discussing challenges in public forums. All these have lent credibility to Intel’s effort. In conclusion, Intel’s quantum effort is a long-term, high-ambition project that leverages the company’s traditional strengths in manufacturing and design. They have made notable strides in developing their own quantum hardware: from novel spin-qubit chips to cryogenic CMOS controllers - forming a blueprint of a future full-stack quantum system. --- > Amazon has taken a dual approach to quantum computing, combining cutting-edge hardware research with commercial cloud services. - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/amazon-aws/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Amazon has taken a dual approach to quantum computing, combining cutting-edge hardware research with commercial cloud services. On the R&D side, Amazon Web Services (AWS) established the AWS Center for Quantum Computing at Caltech in 2019, explicitly aiming to build a fault-tolerant quantum computer capable of solving problems beyond classical reach. This effort focuses on superconducting qubits and novel error-correction techniques, leveraging a team of quantum hardware experts (led by Caltech professors Oskar Painter and Fernando Brandão) and close collaborations with academic luminaries like John Preskill. In parallel, Amazon’s cloud platform Amazon Braket (launched in 2019-2020) offers on-demand access to a variety of quantum processors through a unified interface. Braket enables researchers and developers to run quantum algorithms on multiple modalities - from superconducting circuits to ion traps and photonic devices - alongside classical computing resources for hybrid quantum-classical workflows. This combination of long-term hardware development and near-term cloud services characterizes Amazon’s strategy: invest in future fault-tolerant architecture while providing present-day quantum computing access and tools to customers. --- > Atom Computing is a fast-rising startup developing gate-based quantum computers using optically trapped neutral atoms as qubits. - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/atom-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Atom Computing is a fast-rising startup developing gate-based quantum computers using optically trapped neutral atoms as qubits. The company made headlines in late 2023 by announcing a 1,225-site optical atom array populated with 1,180 qubits - the first universal quantum platform to surpass 1,000 qubits. This dramatic leap (from a ~100-qubit first-generation system to >1,000 qubits in one generation) showcases the inherent scalability of Atom’s neutral-atom approach. Atom’s qubits are encoded in the nuclear spin states of neutral atoms, which yields exceptionally long coherence times (on the order of ~40 seconds). Combined with all-to-all connectivity enabled by mobile laser-trapped atoms, this platform has been designed from the outset with fault-tolerant quantum computing in mind. The startup’s aggressive progress and focus on error correction have quickly made it a serious contender in the race toward practical, large-scale quantum computers. --- > D-Wave Systems is a pioneer in quantum computing known for its unique focus on quantum annealing - a specialized analog approach... - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/d-wave/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Canada D-Wave Systems is a pioneer in quantum computing known for its unique focus on quantum annealing - a specialized analog approach distinct from the gate-based quantum processors pursued by most competitors. Founded in 1999, D-Wave became the first company to commercially sell a quantum computer in 2011 with a 128-qubit annealing-based system. Rather than the circuit model of quantum computation (employing logic gates on qubits), D-Wave’s machines solve optimization problems by evolving a network of superconducting flux qubits toward low-energy states, implementing an Ising-model annealing process. This approach proved scalable in qubit count early on, albeit limited to certain problem types (notably combinatorial optimization). Over two decades, D-Wave has iteratively improved its annealing processors, delivering ever-larger quantum annealers to customers in research and industry. Today, D-Wave stands out as the only company building both annealing and gate-model quantum computers. In recent years, it has embarked on a significant strategic expansion: leveraging its annealing expertise to develop a gate-based quantum computing platform, with an emphasis on long-term scalability and fault tolerance. --- > Diraq is an Australian quantum computing startup focused on building large-scale quantum processors based on silicon-based spin qubits. - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/diraq/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Australia Diraq is an Australian quantum computing startup (founded in 2022 as a spin-off from UNSW Sydney by Professor Andrew Dzurak) focused on building large-scale quantum processors based on silicon-based spin qubits. The company’s strategy is to leverage standard silicon CMOS manufacturing - using modified transistor structures that act as quantum bits - to achieve practical and scalable quantum computing. Diraq’s qubits are single-electron spins confined in silicon quantum dots, an approach originally pioneered by its founding team (Dzurak’s group demonstrated the first two-qubit logic gate in silicon in 2015). By consolidating millions of these qubits on a single chip, Diraq aims to deliver “utility-scale” quantum processors that are powerful and cost-effective enough for real-world applications. This vision of integrating quantum devices with classical semiconductor technology underpins Diraq’s mission to build fault-tolerant quantum computers using familiar silicon chip fabrication techniques. Notably, Diraq emerged as a separate venture from the earlier UNSW effort Silicon Quantum Computing (led by Michelle Simmons), choosing in 2022 to pursue a different route to the quantum comp --- > Google is a frontrunner in the quest to build practical quantum computers. The company made headlines in 2019 by achieving quantum supremacy... - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/google/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Google is a frontrunner in the quest to build practical quantum computers. The company made headlines in 2019 by achieving quantum supremacy – using its 53-qubit Sycamore processor to perform in about 200 seconds a task that was estimated to require 10,000 years on a top supercomputer. This dramatic demonstration marked a milestone in computing and signaled Google’s emergence as a leader in quantum hardware. Since then, Google has set an ambitious target: to build a “useful, error-corrected quantum computer” by 2029. Announced by CEO Sundar Pichai in 2021, this goal defines Google’s roadmap for the decade. In essence, Google is striving to create a fault-tolerant quantum machine within ten years – a feat likely requiring on the order of one million physical qubits to yield enough stable logical qubits. Achieving this will demand major advances in qubit quality, error correction, and scaling technologies. --- > IBM has laid out one of the most detailed and aggressive quantum computing roadmaps in the industry. Over the past few years, IBM Quantum... - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ibm/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States IBM has laid out one of the most detailed and aggressive quantum computing roadmaps in the industry. Over the past few years, IBM Quantum has consistently hit its interim milestones, expanding both the scale of its processors and the sophistication of its approach to quantum computing. As a long-time pioneer in quantum computing, IBM was the first to put real quantum hardware on the cloud and has steadily built a global ecosystem (IBM Quantum Network) around its machines. Now, IBM’s focus is squarely on scaling up towards practical, fault-tolerant quantum computers by the end of this decade. Key highlights include ambitious qubit count milestones, a pivot toward error-corrected qubits, and an integration of quantum and classical computing into “quantum-centric supercomputing” systems. --- > Aegiq is a UK-based quantum technology startup that focuses on building full-stack photonic quantum computing systems - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/aegiq/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United Kingdom Alice & Bob is a Paris-based quantum computing startup (founded in Feb 2020 by Dr. Théau Peronnin and Dr. Raphaël Lescanne) focused on building a universal, fault-tolerant quantum computer using a novel “cat qubit” architecture. The company’s approach leverages superconducting cat qubits, quantum bits that are inherently protected from certain errors, to drastically reduce the overhead for error correction. Backed by substantial funding and scientific pedigree, Alice & Bob has set out an ambitious roadmap aiming to deliver the world’s first “useful” fault-tolerant quantum computer by 2030, culminating in a system with 100 high-fidelity logical qubits (code-named Graphene) demonstrating real-world quantum advantage. In essence, Alice & Bob’s strategy is to “fight decoherence” at the hardware level via cat qubits, thereby making scalable quantum computing practical with far fewer qubits than conventional designs. --- > Infleqtion (formerly ColdQuanta) is a leading quantum technology company focused on gate-based quantum computing built on neutral atoms - Published: 2025-05-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/infleqtion/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: United States Infleqtion (formerly known as ColdQuanta) is a leading quantum technology company focused on gate-based quantum computing built on neutral atoms. By leveraging optically trapped atomic qubits, Infleqtion aims to deliver scalable, high-fidelity quantum processors with a clear path toward fault-tolerance and commercial utility. The company’s approach emphasizes large 2D qubit arrays and Rydberg-mediated entangling gates, achieving record gate fidelities and integrating advanced software control to accelerate progress toward logical qubits. --- > Alice & Bob is a Paris-based quantum computing startup focused on building a universal, fault-tolerant quantum computer using a novel “cat qubit” - Published: 2025-05-20 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/alice-bob/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Companies - Tags: Europe, France Alice & Bob is a Paris-based quantum computing startup (founded in Feb 2020 by Dr. Théau Peronnin and Dr. Raphaël Lescanne) focused on building a universal, fault-tolerant quantum computer using a novel “cat qubit” architecture. The company’s approach leverages superconducting cat qubits, quantum bits that are inherently protected from certain errors, to drastically reduce the overhead for error correction. Backed by substantial funding and scientific pedigree, Alice & Bob has set out an ambitious roadmap aiming to deliver the world’s first “useful” fault-tolerant quantum computer by 2030, culminating in a system with 100 high-fidelity logical qubits (code-named Graphene) demonstrating real-world quantum advantage. In essence, Alice & Bob’s strategy is to “fight decoherence” at the hardware level via cat qubits, thereby making scalable quantum computing practical with far fewer qubits than conventional designs. --- > Superconducting cat qubits are an emerging approach to quantum computing that still uses superconducting circuits but encodes each qubit... - Published: 2025-05-07 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-cat-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Superconducting cat qubits are an emerging approach to quantum computing that still uses superconducting circuits but encodes each qubit in a bosonic mode - typically a microwave resonator - as a Schrödinger “cat” state (a superposition of two coherent states). In essence, instead of a single Josephson junction acting as a two-level qubit (like a transmon or flux qubit), a cat qubit stores quantum information in the joint state of many photons delocalized in a superconducting resonator. The two basis states are often coherent states of opposite phase (e.g. |α⟩ and |-α⟩, named after Schrödinger’s famous cat that is “alive” and “dead” at once). This clever encoding gives cat qubits built-in noise resilience: one type of error (analogous to a bit-flip, which would swap |α⟩ ↔ |-α⟩) is intrinsically suppressed, because transitioning between those distinct states is unlikely. Meanwhile, the other error (phase-flip between |α⟩ and |-α⟩ superpositions) can be corrected with a simple redundancy code. The result is a biased-noise qubit that remains coherent much longer against certain errors than a conventional superconducting qubit. --- > The energy requirements for breaking RSA-2048 with a quantum computer underscore how different the post-quantum threat is... - Published: 2025-04-24 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/energy-cost-rsa-2048-quantum/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day The energy requirements for breaking RSA-2048 with a quantum computer underscore how different the post-quantum threat is from conventional hacking. It’s not just about qubits and math; it’s about megawatts, cooling systems, and power grids. Today, that reality means only the most potent actors would even contemplate such attacks, and even then only for the crown jewels of intelligence. Tomorrow, advances in both quantum engineering and energy production could erode even that barrier. The enormous costs – in dollars and joules – of quantum cryptanalysis serve as a stark warning and a call to action. They buy us time to fortify our cryptographic defenses, but not an indefinite amount of time. In the end, whether or not our data remains secure in the quantum age may depend as much on developments in high-energy physics as on breakthroughs in quantum algorithms. The prudent course for defenders is clear: assume the worst-case scenario (a powerful CRQC powered by abundant energy) will eventually come to pass, and move urgently toward encryption that can withstand that future. --- > Amid quantum revolution, a bottleneck has emerged: a lack of skilled people. In fact, the quantum talent shortage is now seen as one... - Published: 2025-04-23 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-workforce-talent/ - Categories: Leadership, Quantum Commercialization Amid quantum revolution, a bottleneck has emerged: a lack of skilled people. In fact, the quantum talent shortage is now seen as one of the primary hurdles to translating lab discoveries into real-world innovations. One industry expert even warned that developing a “quantum-literate workforce” will be a key factor in winning the global tech race. The message is clear – without enough qualified engineers, scientists, and entrepreneurs, the quantum boom could stall despite ample funding and cutting-edge research. Recent studies underscore the severity of the gap. A McKinsey report found there is only one qualified candidate available for every three quantum job openings. In other words, demand outstrips supply threefold. As a result, more than half of open quantum positions may go unfilled – with projections that less than half of all quantum computing jobs filled by 2025 unless we take action. This shortfall isn’t limited to one country or subfield; it appears across the board. For instance, in 2021 an estimated two-thirds of quantum-related jobs worldwide went unfilled due to lack of qualified professionals, and even by 2022 about 50% of quantum positions remained vacant. Whether it’s quantum computing, sensing, or cryptography, companies are struggling to find the talent they need to commercialize breakthroughs. The workforce gap has become so critical that the White House labeled it a “national security vulnerability,” urging efforts to train and attract more quantum specialists. --- > Quantum computers hold enormous promise, but they face a stubborn adversary: decoherence. This is the process by which a qubit’s... - Published: 2025-04-19 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/many-faces-decoherence/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum computers hold enormous promise, but they face a stubborn adversary: decoherence. This is the process by which a qubit’s fragile quantum state (its superposition or entanglement) leaks into the environment and effectively "forgets" the information it was carrying. For today’s leading quantum hardware modalities – superconducting circuits, trapped-ion qubits, neutral atoms in optical traps, photonic qubits, and semiconductor spin qubits in silicon – decoherence is the central obstacle to scalability and practical use. Understanding the sources of decoherence in each platform is crucial for scientists, engineers, and policy makers charting the future of quantum technology. --- > Quantum computers already outperform classical computers on a few specialized tasks, and over the coming years that list of tasks will grow... - Published: 2025-04-18 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-classical/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum computers already outperform classical computers on a few specialized tasks, and over the coming years that list of tasks will grow. They excel at problems where superposition and entanglement let them explore a vast landscape of possibilities in parallel and use interference to extract an answer – factoring numbers, searching databases, simulating quantum systems, solving certain optimization problems, and more we have yet to discover. Problems that are highly structured, mathematical, or rooted in quantum physics themselves are especially “quantum-friendly.” Classical computers, on the other hand, still rule the realm of everyday computing and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future, as quantum machines are delicate and best suited for heavy lifting on very specific challenges. The likely scenario is a hybrid one: quantum co-processors accelerating key pieces of computations within larger classical systems. Significant hurdles like error correction, qubit scaling, and programming abstractions are actively being worked on by some of the brightest minds in physics and computer science. The pace of progress suggests that each new generation of quantum hardware will solve bigger problems, inching us toward the first practical, real-world quantum computing applications. --- > Logical qubits are the linchpin for delivering on the promise of quantum computing. They are the qubits as we wish we had them... - Published: 2025-04-16 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/logical-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Logical qubits are the linchpin for delivering on the promise of quantum computing. They are the qubits as we wish we had them – long-lived and trustworthy – brought to life by the ingenuity of quantum error correction. By encoding information across many imperfect qubits, scientists have shown they can create a single superior qubit, and the more qubits you throw at it, the better it gets. This concept transforms how we talk about quantum computing: it shifts the focus from raw qubit count to usable qubit count. Ten physical qubits are just ten fragile quantum objects, but ten logical qubits (each perhaps made from dozens of physical ones) could someday form a small quantum computer capable of non-trivial computations. --- > Patents, when aligned with business goals, can attract investment, deter infringement, and provide leverage for collaboration. TTOs and innovators... - Published: 2025-04-03 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-patents-ip/ - Categories: Quantum Commercialization Patents, when aligned with business goals, can attract investment, deter infringement, and provide leverage for collaboration. TTOs and innovators should view IP not just as legal protection but as a core part of innovation strategy – especially in a field where today’s lab discovery might be tomorrow’s billion-dollar application. A mix of agility (to file and pivot quickly), diligence (to avoid pitfalls), and cooperation (to align with the broader ecosystem) will serve best. The quantum revolution is a marathon, not a sprint, and IP rights are the mile markers along the way, ensuring that those who push the frontiers are recognized – and rewarded – for their contributions to this transformative field. --- > If you encrypted a message with an RSA-2048 public key today, no one on Earth knows how to factor it with currently available technology... - Published: 2025-04-02 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/breaking-rsa-quantum-hype/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day To put it plainly, if you encrypted a message with an RSA-2048 public key today, no one on Earth knows how to factor it with currently available technology, even if they threw every quantum computer and supercomputer we have at the task. That may change in the future – perhaps in a decade or even less if quantum tech continues its exponential development. Or perhaps some new algorithmic insight will emerge (the door is never completely closed in research). But the events of 2022–2025 ultimately reinforced the cautious view: quantum computing is making steady progress, but it hasn’t rendered classical encryption obsolete just yet. We should be excited by the advances – factoring 48-bit numbers with 10 qubits is a fantastic scientific achievement – without jumping to premature conclusions about the end of RSA. --- > As part of its post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization, NIST introduced five security strength categories (often labeled Levels 1-5) - Published: 2025-04-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nist-pqc-security-categories/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day As part of its post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization, NIST introduced five security strength categories (often labeled Levels 1-5) to classify the robustness of candidate algorithms. Each category represents a minimum security level that a PQC algorithm’s cryptanalysis should require, defined by comparison to a well-understood "reference" problem in classical cryptography. In simpler terms, NIST set floors for security: if a PQC scheme claims to meet Category X, it should be at least as hard to break as solving a certain reference problem (like brute-forcing a key of a certain size or finding a hash collision). This approach avoids over-reliance on precise bit estimates (which are uncertain in the quantum era) and instead uses broad tiers of strength. The goals are to ensure apples-to-apples comparisons between algorithms, guide prudent key size transitions over time, and help designers choose appropriate symmetric primitives inside their schemes. --- > Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is here - not in theory, but in practice. We have concrete algorithms, with standards guiding their implementation - Published: 2025-04-01 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-pqc-nist/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day - Tags: featured Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is here - not in theory, but in practice. We have concrete algorithms, with standards guiding their implementation. They will replace our decades-old cryptographic infrastructure piece by piece over the next decade. For tech professionals, now is the time to get comfortable with lattices and new key sizes, to update libraries and protocols, and to ensure crypto agility in systems. The transition is as significant as the move from 1024-bit RSA to 2048-bit, or from SHA-1 to SHA-256, but with even bigger implications. Yet it is achievable: through careful standardization and well-vetted algorithms, we can build a quantum-resistant foundation without sacrificing performance or security. --- > London, UK (NCSC) - The UK’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) this week unveiled new guidance on timelines for migrating... - Published: 2025-03-24 - Modified: 2025-09-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-ncsc-timelines-pqc/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom London, UK (NCSC) - The UK’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) this week unveiled new guidance on timelines for migrating to post-quantum cryptography (PQC), outlining a phased roadmap for organizations to shift their encryption methods to quantum-resistant standards by 2035. Announced just days ago, the guidance breaks down key milestones over the next decade to ensure a “smooth and controlled migration” that avoids the risks of a last-minute scramble or rushed implementations that might leave security gaps. --- > Applied Quantum is the first and only end-to-end pure-play 100% quantum--focused professional services firm... - Published: 2025-03-17 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/applied-quantum-focused/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Leadership Applied Quantum is a firm that for the first time would be 100% dedicated to quantum technology services – not as a sideline, not as one emerging tech practice among many, but as the entire mission of the company, and it would cover the field end-to-end. We founded Applied Quantum to be the first and only end-to-end pure-play quantum professional services firm precisely because generalist consulting firms were not cutting it. Enterprises and governments deserve a partner that lives and breathes quantum every single day. --- > Quantum programming is an emerging discipline that challenges developers to think beyond classical bits and deterministic algorithms... - Published: 2025-03-16 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-programming/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum programming is an emerging discipline that challenges developers to think beyond classical bits and deterministic algorithms. Instead of manipulating binary 0s and 1s, quantum programmers work with qubits that can exist in multiple states at once and harness phenomena like superposition and entanglement to perform computations in fundamentally new ways. Quantum programming demands a shift in thinking: information is encoded in probability amplitudes, operations are reversible linear transformations, and results emerge from statistical patterns rather than single-run outputs. The reward is the ability to tackle certain computational problems that are intractable for classical computers, by exploiting the exponential state space and correlations of qubits. --- > A fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get... - Published: 2025-03-15 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-amdahls-law/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Amdahl’s Law teaches us a humbling lesson about the limits of classical computing: there is always a portion that resists parallel speedup, chaining us to diminishing returns. We’ve coped by clever engineering – making that chain as short as possible – but not broken it. Quantum computing offers a bolt cutter for certain chains, freeing us from some of the constraints that have started to stall high-end computing. It fundamentally changes the rules of the game by leveraging physics in ways classical computers cannot. --- > South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy... - Published: 2025-03-14 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-south-korea/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: South Korea South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy and increasing investments, Korea is making its mark through cutting-edge research at top universities, substantial government support for quantum computing and communications, and active participation from industry giants and startups alike. The country’s balanced focus – on quantum computing platforms, quantum-safe communications (QKD and PQC), and quantum sensing – reflects a holistic understanding of the quantum revolution’s impact. Technical milestones like multi-qubit photonic chips, large-scale QKD deployment , and novel PQC algorithms showcase Korea’s growing R&D prowess. At the same time, initiatives such as dedicated quantum grad schools and the training of thousands of specialists ensure that human capital will not be a bottleneck. Significantly, South Korea has embedded quantum technology into its broader economic and security policies – treating it as a critical technology for the future, much like semiconductors or AI. This means support for quantum is likely to be sustained across administrations. The new Quantum Promotion Act and the high-level coordination committee provide institutional continuity. --- > D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” - Published: 2025-03-13 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-quantum-advantage/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Canada D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” – using its quantum annealing technology on a practical problem. In a peer-reviewed study published in Science on March 12, 2025, D-Wave’s researchers report that their 5,000+ qubit Advantage2 prototype quantum annealer outperformed one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers (Oak Ridge National Lab’s Frontier system) in simulating the quantum dynamics of a complex magnetic material . The task involved modeling programmable spin glass systems (a type of disordered magnetic material) relevant to materials science. According to D-Wave, their quantum machine found solutions in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer an estimated “nearly one million years” to match, a problem so intensive it would consume more power than the world’s annual energy supply if attempted classically . --- > NIST has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4... - Published: 2025-03-11 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-hqc-pqc/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4 of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) standardization program . HQC’s advancement is especially interesting because it is the only algorithm from NIST’s 4th round of evaluations to be chosen for standardization . This move will add a 5th algorithm to NIST’s list of quantum-resistant tools, serving as a backup encryption method alongside the four algorithms already selected in earlier rounds . For a more technical analysis of the previously-selected 4 algorithms, see: Inside NIST’s First Post-Quantum Standards: A Technical Exploration of Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+. --- > Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - Published: 2025-03-06 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/fault-tolerant-erasure-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing . --- > Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - Published: 2025-03-06 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-middle-east/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI. The Middle East is determined not to miss out on the quantum revolution, and that determination is reshaping the tech narrative of this region. What’s behind this quantum push in the Middle East? Two key factors stand out: wealth from natural resources and a need to diversify economies, coupled with relative political stability. Gulf nations have long relied on oil and gas – and now they’re investing those petrodollars into technology to pivot away from hydrocarbon-dependent GDP. This access to capital, plus stable governments that can plan for the long term, forms the backbone of their quantum ambitions. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qatar are prime examples: each has strategic national visions (like Saudi’s Vision 2030 and the UAE’s Centennial 2071 plan) that highlight innovation and knowledge economies, giving quantum tech a supportive policy environment. --- > Race to fault-tolerant quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses... - Published: 2025-03-05 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fault-tolerant-quantum-race/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: China, United States Quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses—Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft, Google, IBM, and Zuchongzhi—all in the last 4 months. Are these just hype-fueled announcements, or do they mark real progress toward useful, large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computing—and perhaps signal an accelerated timeline for “Q-Day”? Personally, I'm bullish about these announcements. Each of these reveals a different and interesting strategy for tackling the field’s biggest challenge: quantum error correction. The combined innovation pushes the file forward in a big way. But let's dig into some details. --- > China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor - Published: 2025-03-04 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-3-0-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor with 105 qubits, marking a major leap in quantum computing performance. Announced in March 2025 by a University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) team led by Pan Jianwei, Zhu Xiaobo, and Peng Chengzhi, this prototype boasts unprecedented processing speed – reportedly quadrillion ($10^15$) times faster than today’s best supercomputer and about one million times faster than Google’s latest quantum chip results announced just a few months ago. --- > Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications... - Published: 2025-03-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-geopolitics/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: China, Europe, Russia, United States Quantum computing has emerged as a new frontier of great-power competition in the 21st century . Nations around the world view advanced quantum technologies as strategic assets—keys to future economic prowess, military strength, and technological sovereignty. Governments have already poured over $40 billion into quantum research and development globally , launching national initiatives and international collaborations to secure a lead in this critical domain. --- > In the 21st century, cutting-edge physics has moved from the laboratory into the realm of high geopolitics. Breakthroughs in quantum computing... - Published: 2025-03-01 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/physics-quantum-cold-war/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: China, Europe, Russia, United States In the 21st century, cutting-edge physics has moved from the laboratory into the realm of high geopolitics. Breakthroughs in quantum computing, advanced materials, and energy aren’t just academic - they are strategic assets coveted by nations. The situation echoes the mid-20th century, when projects like the Manhattan Project turned abstract physics into world-altering power. Today, governments are pouring billions into quantum technology and other physics-driven fields, believing that whoever leads in physics may lead the world. From quantum encryption to fusion energy, physics has become core to economic competitiveness, military strength, and diplomatic leverage. This article explores how emerging domains - from room-temperature superconductors to photonics and metamaterials - are reshaping global politics, drawing historical parallels (from the atomic bomb race to Cold War espionage), and examining how scientists and knowledge are becoming pawns in a high-stakes geopolitical game. The central thesis: physics itself is now a geopolitical battleground, even more than it used to be in the past. --- > AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest... - Published: 2025-02-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ai-quantum-sensing/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest scales; AI provides the means to interpret and act on that data in real time. This synergy is already evident in cutting-edge projects – from AI algorithms cleaning up quantum microscope images to autonomous navigation systems using quantum sensors plus AI to chart their course . As both technologies mature, their convergence will enable a new class of applications that neither could achieve alone. --- > In the end, funding a quantum leap is about building bridges – between lab and market, between public and private interests, and between... - Published: 2025-02-28 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/funding-quantum-startups/ - Categories: Leadership, Quantum Commercialization In the end, funding a quantum leap is about building bridges – between lab and market, between public and private interests, and between today’s prototypes and tomorrow’s transformative industries. Each dollar raised and each partnership forged is like adding a plank to the bridge over the Valley of Death. With a well-crafted funding strategy, today’s PhD student with a brilliant idea can become tomorrow’s CEO of a quantum powerhouse. The journey is not easy: it demands patience, storytelling, and the courage to ask for support on an unprecedented mission. But as we’ve seen, when it all comes together – when the science, the capital, and the vision align – the results are remarkable. --- > Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone... - Published: 2025-02-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/aws-ocelot-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone in the company’s quantum ambitions. Announced on February 27, 2025, Ocelot is a prototype processor designed from the ground up to tackle quantum error correction in a more resource-efficient way. AWS claims the new chip can reduce the overhead (and thus cost) of error correction by up to 90% compared to current methods. Developed at the AWS Center for Quantum Computing (on Caltech’s campus), Ocelot is described as a breakthrough toward building fault-tolerant quantum computers – machines that could one day solve problems “beyond the reach” of today’s classical supercomputers. This announcement positions AWS alongside other tech giants in the race for quantum computing, but with a distinct focus on error-corrected quantum hardware from the outset. --- > Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we operate networks - Published: 2025-02-27 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-telecom/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Telecommunications Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we secure and operate networks, enabling levels of performance and protection previously unattainable . At the same time, it forces a reckoning with the vulnerabilities of our current systems. The journey to fully realize quantum-enhanced telecom will involve overcoming technical challenges and managing risks, but the destination – a world with fundamentally secure, high-capacity communications and perhaps even a quantum internet spanning continents – is one of extraordinary promise. --- > In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design... - Published: 2025-02-23 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana-1-hype/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design leveraging exotic Majorana quasiparticles. This chip uses a new material called a “topoconductor” (a specially engineered topological superconductor) made from indium arsenide and aluminum, which can host and control Majorana zero modes (MZMs) to serve as qubits. Microsoft’s announcement framed this as a paradigm shift akin to inventing the “transistor for the quantum age,” claiming that the Majorana 1 chip’s “Topological Core” could eventually scale to one million qubits on a single, palm-sized chip. --- > The gap between the hard reality of quantum engineering and the sensational way it’s often portrayed has created a fertile breeding ground... - Published: 2025-01-29 - Modified: 2025-09-08 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-of-bullshit/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The gap between the hard reality of quantum engineering and the sensational way it’s often portrayed has created a fertile breeding ground for misinformation and fraud. It ranges from innocuous exaggeration, to willful marketing spin, to serious financial scams and wild pseudoscience. Think of it as a “know your enemy” for quantum professionals: if you can spot these patterns, you’re less likely to fall for them or waste time (or money) on them. --- > On January 16 2025 President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14144, “Strengthening and Promoting Innovation in the Nation’s Cybersecurity.” - Published: 2025-01-19 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/executive-order-14144-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On January 16 2025 President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14144, “Strengthening and Promoting Innovation in the Nation’s Cybersecurity.” The 17‑page directive is the administration’s most comprehensive cyber policy since EO 14028 in 2021 and, for the first time, embeds post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) migration deadlines directly in federal law. At its core the order: Puts PQC on a clock. CISA must publish, within 180 days, a list of product categories where PQC‑capable solutions are “widely available.” Agencies then have 90 days to make PQC support a mandatory requirement in any new solicitation for those products, and they must enable PQC or “hybrid” key‑establishment as soon as practicable on networks that already support it. --- > Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point... - Published: 2025-01-16 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-healthcare/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Healthcare & Medical Research Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point, we can see glimmers of its future impact: prototype quantum algorithms already accelerating drug discovery, early collaborations bringing quantum hardware into hospital research labs, and quantum-inspired methods optimizing healthcare operations in ways that improve patient care. As the technology evolves from today’s nascent systems to tomorrow’s fault-tolerant quantum computers, the scale of disruption and advancement will only grow. --- > Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a security technology that leverages quantum physics to enable two parties to share secret encryption keys - Published: 2025-01-08 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-key-distribution-qkd-cyber/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a cutting-edge security technology that leverages quantum physics to enable two parties to share secret encryption keys with unprecedented security guarantees. Unlike classical key exchange methods whose security rests on computational assumptions, QKD’s security is rooted in the laws of physics – any eavesdropping attempt will unavoidably disturb the quantum signals and reveal itself. With large-scale quantum computers on the horizon threatening to break classical cryptography, QKD is emerging as an important tool in the cybersecurity arsenal. Cybersecurity professionals should be aware of QKD as part of “quantum readiness” efforts they are all about to embark on. --- > Chinese researchers published “A First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 Integer by D-Wave Quantum Computer.” Not even close! - Published: 2025-01-07 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/factorization-rsa-2048-chinese-claim/ - Categories: Industry News Chinese researchers published “A First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 Integer by D-Wave Quantum Computer.” To get straight to the point - the title is misleading. The authors did NOT factor a general RSA-2048 key (as used in real cryptography); instead, they factored a specially structured 2048-bit semiprime chosen to be extremely easy. --- > Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) has introduced an unconventional paradigm in quantum computing called Entropy Quantum Computing (EQC) - Published: 2025-01-03 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/entropy-quantum-computing-qci/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: United States Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) has introduced an unconventional paradigm in quantum computing called Entropy Quantum Computing (EQC). Unlike the standard approach of isolating qubits in pristine, ultra-cold environments, QCI’s method intentionally embraces environmental noise and loss as part of the computation. Their quantum processors, optical devices operating at room temperature, leverage photons and a bit of chaos to solve complex optimization problems. --- > Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap... - Published: 2024-12-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/russia-50-qubit-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Russia Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap in its national quantum program . Researchers at Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) and the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) developed the 50-qubit device using neutral rubidium atoms as quantum bits . The prototype was successfully tested on December 19, 2024, just in time to meet a government-backed 2020 roadmap goal of building a 50-qubit system by end of 2024 . This accomplishment positions Russia among a select group of nations with quantum processors at the 50-qubit scale, a benchmark long pursued in the global race for quantum computing capabilities . --- > For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope... - Published: 2024-12-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: China In little over a decade, China transformed from a minor player into a quantum technology powerhouse. The talent has matured, and a new generation of Chinese quantum scientists is coming into its own – many trained at top universities domestically and abroad, now supported by some of the best facilities in the world. Looking forward, we can expect China’s quantum momentum to continue. The Chinese government has signaled that quantum R&D will remain a high priority in its upcoming plans (2030 and beyond), ensuring steady funding and political support. The Hefei national quantum lab will likely become fully operational, hosting thousands of researchers and housing next-generation equipment to push the boundaries in both computing and sensing. Additional quantum satellites are planned: China aims to launch higher-orbit quantum satellites (in medium Earth orbit) for wider coverage and perhaps even quantum-enabled global navigation satellites. By 2030, China envisions a functional global quantum communications network – one can imagine a constellation of Mozi-like satellites linking not just Chinese cities but potentially friendly regions in Asia, the Middle East, or Africa, offering secure comms services. Such a network might integrate with fiber links to form the backbone of a nascent quantum internet. In quantum computing, China will press toward larger and more robust quantum machines. --- > ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s... - Published: 2024-12-27 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-singapore-asean/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: ASEAN, Singapore ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s – the National Research Foundation began funding quantum research as early as 2002, and by 2007 the government helped establish the Centre for Quantum Technologies (CQT) at the National University of Singapore. CQT was a milestone for the region, bringing together physicists, computer scientists, and engineers to explore quantum physics and build prototype quantum devices. Over the subsequent decade, CQT’s researchers published around 2,000 scientific papers and trained more than 60 PhD students, seeding a generation of quantum scientists in Southeast Asia. This early start positioned Singapore as the region’s quantum research hub. Other ASEAN members followed in the 2010s: research groups and academic programs in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia began exploring quantum information science, albeit on a smaller scale. --- > Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics... - Published: 2024-12-26 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-russia/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: Russia Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics and early quantum experiments. This legacy endures in the modern era – Russian experts often note that the “Soviet school of quantum physics was one of the best in the world,” providing a deep talent pool for today’s initiatives. In the 2010s, Russia began explicitly organizing its quantum research efforts. A key milestone was the establishment of the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) in 2010 at the Skolkovo innovation hub as a private research institution focused on fundamental and applied quantum physics. RQC quickly garnered support, securing over 2 billion rubles (~€30 million) in funding from competitive grants and private investors like Gazprombank. This signaled a public-private interest in keeping pace with the “second quantum revolution.” Soon after, regional centers emerged (e.g. a quantum center in Kazan in 2014) and Russian universities expanded quantum research programs. --- > The Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), introduced in 2014, has rapidly become a flagship algorithm for simulating ground-state properties... - Published: 2024-12-25 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/variational-quantum-eigensolver-vqe/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), introduced in 2014, has rapidly become a flagship algorithm for simulating ground-state properties on today’s noisy quantum computers. Rather than running long quantum circuits, VQE uses short circuits and a classical optimizer in tandem: the quantum processor prepares a trial wavefunction with adjustable parameters, and a classical computer iteratively tweaks those parameters to minimize the measured energy. This hybrid approach was first developed to find molecular ground-state energies , and it has since been adapted to a broad range of problems in chemistry and physics. In the past few years, researchers in academia and industry (including IBM, Google, and Microsoft) have achieved a series of notable VQE milestones – from accurately computing the energies of real molecules to probing strongly correlated materials and even simple nuclear systems. --- > Contrarianism in quantum tech, as in any tech, is best viewed as a tool, not a truth. It’s a tool for questioning and refining the narrative... - Published: 2024-12-18 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-contrarianism/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Leadership Contrarianism in quantum tech, as in any tech, is best viewed as a tool, not a truth. It’s a tool for questioning and refining the narrative, for ensuring we don’t delude ourselves. But it is not the final truth of what the technology will or will not achieve – that truth will be revealed only through continued research, engineering, and yes, a bit of imagination. As the contrarians often remind us, “extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” They are correct. The extraordinary claim is that quantum computing will transform computing; the burden is on us in the field to provide evidence, step by step, that this claim can be realized. Until then, skepticism keeps us honest. However, I’ll finish with this thought: skepticism, too, should be kept honest. It must be evidence-based and ready to adapt as new facts emerge. --- > Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing... - Published: 2024-12-11 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-willow-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing. The 105-qubit Willow chip demonstrates two breakthroughs that have long eluded researchers: it dramatically reduces error rates as qubit count scales up, and it completed a computational task in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer longer than the age of the universe. These achievements suggest Google’s quantum hardware is edging closer to the threshold of useful quantum advantage, paving the way for large-scale systems that could outperform classical computers on real-world problems. --- > Quantum technologies introduce a new era for cybersecurity – one that is simultaneously perilous and full of potential. - Published: 2024-12-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum technologies introduce a new era for cybersecurity – one that is simultaneously perilous and full of potential. On the threat side, the advent of quantum computers threatens to upend the cryptographic protections we rely on daily, making it imperative that we transition to quantum-safe methods before quantum attackers emerge. At the same time, on the defense side, quantum physics offers unprecedented tools to achieve security guarantees that were previously unattainable, from unbreakable key exchange to unclonable IDs and beyond. The coming years will see a race: deploying post-quantum cryptography across the internet, rolling out hybrid solutions and QKD for critical links, and exploring cutting-edge ideas like quantum-enhanced cyber AI and authentication. It’s a race against time – against the moment a quantum computer roars to life and against sophisticated adversaries investing in quantum R&D – but it’s also a race toward a more secure future, where we harness quantum power for good. For cybersecurity professionals, the message is clear. Stay informed about quantum developments, both the risks and the solutions. Begin assessing your cryptographic inventory now and follow the progress of NIST standards and vendor implementations to plan upgrades. Where appropriate, consider trials of quantum technologies like QKD or QRNG, especially if you handle data with a long shelf life or of extremely high sensitivity. Develop a quantum risk management strategy: this might include crypto-agility (easy swap of algorithms), doubling key lengths for symmetric crypto, and even contractual clauses with cloud providers or partners about quantum-safe practices. --- > Researchers have developed specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance... - Published: 2024-11-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-benchmarks/ - Categories: Quantum Computing As quantum computing hardware rapidly improves, simple metrics like qubit count are no longer sufficient to gauge a system’s true capability. Unlike classical computers where transistor counts roughly correlate with performance, quantum bits (qubits) can be error-prone and short-lived, so a few high-fidelity qubits can be more valuable than many noisy ones. This has led researchers to develop specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance – from the ability to perform classically intractable tasks to the effective computational power and reliability of a device. --- > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem... - Published: 2024-11-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/adiabatic-quantum-annealing-cyber/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem. Instead of discrete gate operations, AQC involves slowly evolving a quantum system’s Hamiltonian such that it remains in its lowest-energy (ground) state, effectively “computing” the solution as the system’s final state . AQC and its practical subset known as quantum annealing are particularly geared toward solving optimization problems by finding minima of cost functions. --- > Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor... - Published: 2024-11-20 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-europe-eu/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: Europe Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor encompassing the EU and its member states. The historical commitment to quantum science is now manifesting in tangible outputs: prototype quantum computers in laboratories and supercomputing centers, quantum-secure communication testbeds linking cities, and quantum sensors poised to revolutionize measurements from under the Earth to outer space. The European Union’s flagship program and national quantum strategies in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and elsewhere have created a momentum that engages both prestigious research institutions (ETH Zurich, CNRS, Max Planck Society, etc.) and a growing quantum startup sector (Pasqal, IQM, Atos, and many more). --- > IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor - Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio - Published: 2024-11-20 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r2-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor called Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio. The Heron R2 chip is the second-generation follow-up to IBM’s 133-qubit “Heron” processor introduced in late 2023. Building on its predecessor, the Heron R2 not only adds more qubits but also delivers major improvements in qubit coherence, gate fidelity, and overall computational efficiency. IBM researchers report that the new system can execute quantum circuits with up to 5,000 two-qubit gate operations, nearly doubling the 2,880 two-qubit gate depth achieved in IBM’s 2023 benchmark. --- > While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity . As quantum computing moves into cloud... - Published: 2024-11-19 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-hacking/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, Quantum Networks While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity . As quantum computing moves into cloud platforms and multi-user environments, attackers will undoubtedly seek ways to exploit them. --- > At its core, QAOA is a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that constructs a special kind of quantum circuit (or “ansatz”) to represent... - Published: 2024-11-06 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-approximate-optimization-algorithm-qaoa/ - Categories: Quantum Computing At its core, QAOA is a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that constructs a special kind of quantum circuit (or “ansatz”) to represent a candidate solution, and then uses a classical optimizer to tweak that circuit for better results. It was introduced in 2014 by Edward Farhi and collaborators as an algorithm that “produces approximate solutions for combinatorial optimization problems” and that improves in quality as you increase a certain parameter p (which controls the circuit’s depth). In essence, QAOA is like a recipe with two key quantum ingredients that you alternate: one ingredient encodes the problem’s objective, and the other ingredient helps explore the search space. By alternating these ingredients p times (where p can be 1, 2, 3, …), you “cook up” a quantum state that hopefully concentrates a lot of probability on good solutions. Then you measure the quantum state to get an actual solution (a bitstring), and use classical feedback to adjust the cooking process (the angles or durations for each ingredient) to get an even better outcome. This loop repeats until we’re satisfied with the solution quality. --- > Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with capabilities of AI... - Published: 2024-10-31 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-ai-qai/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with the learning capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI) . In essence, QAI seeks to use quantum computing—which exploits phenomena like superposition and entanglement—to run AI algorithms that learn from data and make decisions, potentially far more efficiently than on classical computers . This fusion promises to create more powerful and intelligent systems than those currently possible with classical computing alone . --- > At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately... - Published: 2024-10-30 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-use-cases/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately constrained by thermal noise, electronic noise, and even the fundamental “shot noise” of particles. Quantum sensors break past these limits by exploiting the quirky properties of quantum mechanics, like superposition and entanglement. In a quantum sensor, particles (atoms, electrons, photons) are prepared in delicate quantum states that respond to minuscule changes in the environment. Because of this, quantum devices can detect tiny signals with precision beyond any classical strategy. --- > Quantum Machine Learning (Quantum ML or QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional ML - Published: 2024-10-16 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-machine-learning-qml/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional machine learning. The motivation is simple: as data grows and models become more complex, classical computing faces limitations in speed and capacity. Quantum computers leverage principles like superposition and entanglement to process information in fundamentally new ways, which could provide drastic improvements for certain computational tasks . --- > Organizations must embrace both the ethical principles that guide responsible development and the technical rigor required to secure AI systems... - Published: 2024-10-04 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-principles-reality-gap/ - Categories: AI Security In pursuit of AI systems that are ethical and robust we are seeing the emergence of an, ironically, ethical challenge: firms rushing to position themselves as leaders in Responsible AI without the necessary depth in technical expertise. Though their motivations for doing so may not be malicious, the impact is the dilution of the AI security field, something which society cannot afford as AI becomes more and more integrated into our workplaces, homes and everyday life. --- > The landscape of careers in quantum technologies is incredibly rich and expanding by the day. What was once the domain of a few physicists... - Published: 2024-09-28 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/careers-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Leadership The landscape of careers in quantum technologies is incredibly rich and expanding by the day. What was once the domain of a few theoretical physicists is now a broad industry ecosystem hungry for talent from all backgrounds: software, hardware, analytics, management, and more. The driving premise is that you do not need to be an elite quantum physicist to contribute. The opportunities are as varied as they are pioneering. And beyond the technical roles, there’s ample room for creative communicators, strategic thinkers, and bold entrepreneurs to shape how quantum tech will roll out globally. So take the leap - the quantum industry needs you, and the possibilities are endless. --- > Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning... - Published: 2024-09-14 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-australia/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: Australia Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning government, academia, and industry. The country has built a solid foundation with landmark research in quantum computing (particularly in silicon qubit hardware and error correction) and has extended its expertise to quantum communications and sensing applications. With the National Quantum Strategy and increased funding, Australia is doubling down on its strengths – aiming to translate its scientific leadership into economic opportunities and strategic capabilities. The coming years will test Australia’s ability to scale up prototype quantum devices, train and attract a specialized workforce, and foster startups into global competitors. The government’s backing and policy support, combined with the agility of Australian startups and the knowledge base of its universities, bode well for continued progress. --- > Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity... - Published: 2024-09-10 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-quantum-ai-qai/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, AI Security, Quantum AI Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity. PQC aims to develop cryptographic algorithms that can withstand attacks by quantum computers, while QAI explores the use of quantum computing and AI to both break and bolster cryptographic systems. --- > Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation... - Published: 2024-09-09 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-aerospace-automotive/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Aerospace & Automotive Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation is still years away. In this article, we’ve seen that current developments – from corporate partnerships and research alliances to early quantum prototypes tackling real use cases – have already laid the groundwork. Automotive companies are using quantum algorithms in pilot projects to optimize everything from battery chemistry to factory logistics, and aerospace engineers are testing quantum methods for design optimization and materials discovery. --- > Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector... - Published: 2024-08-31 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-finance-banking/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Finance & Banking Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector. Quantum technologies hold the potential to transform financial services – improving risk management, turbocharging trading and analytics, enhancing cybersecurity, and even forcing a paradigm shift in how data is secured. Banks and institutions around the world are investing in research and partnerships to stay quantum-ready, recognizing both the competitive opportunities and the existential threats that quantum computing brings. --- > India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting... - Published: 2024-08-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/india-6-qubit-quantum-processor/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: India India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting quantum processor. A team of scientists from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) completed end-to-end testing of the 6-qubit device, marking a major step in India’s quantum research efforts . This prototype – the country’s first quantum chip based on superconducting circuits – demonstrates India’s entry into the quantum hardware arena, a field dominated so far by only a few nations. --- > Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises... - Published: 2024-08-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-government-defense/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Government & Defense Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises enhancements across the board – unbreakable communications, unprecedented computing power for logistics and AI, new sensors that reveal hidden threats, and simulations that accelerate innovation. It also carries profound disruptive potential, especially for cybersecurity, meaning it can just as easily undermine a nation that is unprepared. --- > Addressing the Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible AI, Trustworthy AI, Secure AI, Ethical AI, and Safe AI Explained - Published: 2024-08-23 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/responsible-ai-secure-ai/ - Categories: AI Security, Quantum AI - Tags: featured As AI continues to evolve and integrate deeper into societal frameworks, the strategies for its governance, alignment, and security must also advance, ensuring that AI enhances human capabilities without undermining human values. This requires a vigilant, adaptive approach that is responsive to new challenges and opportunities, aiming for an AI future that is as secure as it is progressive. --- > The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system... - Published: 2024-08-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/us-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: United States The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system integration, rather than just laboratory science. The next decade will be critical. If current trends hold, we will witness U.S. quantum computers tackling problems that were impossible before, quantum communications protecting real-world data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that society relies on. The U.S. has laid a strong foundation through its national initiatives, research excellence, and industry agility. Maintaining leadership will require sustained investment, a continued focus on education and talent, and smart partnerships between government, academia, and industry. --- > NIST has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms... - Published: 2024-08-13 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-standards/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms selected to protect data against future quantum-computer attacks. These four algorithms – CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, FALCON, and SPHINCS+ – emerged as the winners of NIST’s multi-year global competition to develop encryption and digital signature schemes that can withstand attacks from quantum computers. --- > Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty... - Published: 2024-08-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/myths-quantum-commercialization/ - Categories: Quantum Commercialization Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty does not mean it’s “too early.” The myths we unpacked – that quantum is always 20 years away, that only giants can play, that no market exists, that we can passively wait to license, or that generic support will do – all share a common trait: they underestimate the momentum and ingenuity already at work in the quantum ecosystem. The reality is that in labs and startups across the world, quantum technologies are taking their first steps into the marketplace. University spin-outs are building actual devices and software, signing on pilot customers, and attracting investment, thereby proving these myths wrong one by one. Each trapped-ion module sold, each quantum-secure communication link deployed, each optimization algorithm tested on a quantum processor is a brick in the road from research to industry. That road is being paved now, not in some distant future. And like any new road, it pays to have a good map. Specialized accelerators, government initiatives, and services such as Quantum TTO – which provides domain-specific commercialization guidance – are part of that map. --- > Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal... - Published: 2024-08-07 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-canada/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: Canada Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal and economic benefits. The country’s National Quantum Strategy, with its coordinated missions in computing, communications, and sensing, provides a roadmap for the next stage of quantum innovation in Canada . In the immediate future, we can expect to see a ramp-up of activity on several fronts. Quantum computing hardware developed by Canadian companies will continue to advance: D-Wave is slated to deliver new generations of annealers and is working toward a gate-model quantum processor, while Xanadu is on track to refine its photonic qubit technology with the long-term goal of a fault-tolerant quantum computer. These efforts, supported by government investment and private capital, could yield prototype quantum processors of increasing size and reliability within a few years. --- > The paper’s main claim: by using approximate residue arithmetic and other optimizations, one can factor RSA-2048 with around 1730 logical qubits... - Published: 2024-06-26 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/rsa-2048-1730-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News The paper’s main claim is striking: by using approximate residue arithmetic and other optimizations, one can factor an RSA-2048 number with around 1730 logical qubits – dramatically down from the ~4000–6000 logical qubits required by earlier methods. (See one of my recent posts "4,099 Qubits: The Myth and Reality of Breaking RSA-2048 with Quantum Computers" for more info on how we gt to oft-cited 4,099 qubits number.) In other words, instead of needing on the order of twice the bit-length of the RSA modulus in qubits (as older designs did), the new approach brings the requirement to roughly half the bit-length (plus some overhead). This is achieved by streamlining the modular exponentiation step in Shor’s algorithm: the authors manage to compute only the essential least significant bits of the exponentiation result on-the-fly, rather than storing the entire large number in quantum memory. By working in a Residue Number System (RNS) and truncating unneeded information, the circuit frees up qubits that would normally hold intermediate “garbage” results. It’s akin to doing long multiplication but only keeping track of the last few digits at a time – greatly reducing the scratch space needed. --- > The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks... - Published: 2024-05-24 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-summer/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States --- > Quantum’s big wins will come from breaking silos and working together. Universities, TTOs, scientists, entrepreneurs, investors... - Published: 2024-05-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-external-tto/ - Categories: Quantum Commercialization The race to commercialize quantum technology is on, and it’s not a sprint by a lone runner; it’s a relay. TTOs carry the baton of discovery from the lab, but to reach the finish line of market impact, they must hand off (and continuously team up) with external partners who can run the next laps. External commercialization experts provide the extra legs, the fresh perspective, and the stamina needed for quantum’s long journey to market. --- > Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. - Published: 2024-05-14 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-materials-chemicals/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Materials Science & Chemical Engineering Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. After decades of development, the vision is becoming reality. Quantum computers – though still nascent – have already shown they can emulate the quantum behavior of molecules and materials in ways that classical computers never could, hinting at their tremendous potential. --- > Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip... - Published: 2024-05-11 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-xiaohong/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip ever built in China . This record-breaking processor, developed by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics in collaboration with industry partner QuantumCTek, vaults China into the upper echelon of quantum hardware achievements. Xiaohong’s qubit count surpasses previous domestic efforts by an order of magnitude, marking a significant milestone in the nation’s quest for quantum computing leadership . Just as importantly, the team reports that the chip’s quality metrics (qubit coherence lifetimes, gate fidelities, and usable circuit depth) are expected to rival those of leading international platforms like IBM’s quantum machines . In other words, Xiaohong is not only bigger, but also aims to be better in reliability – a critical combination as the global quantum race accelerates. --- > Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by demonstrating a controllable interaction between hole-spin qubits... - Published: 2024-05-07 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/hole-spin-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Switzerland --- > External quantum commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the expertise that most academic teams lack... - Published: 2024-04-30 - Modified: 2025-09-06 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-commercialization/ - Categories: Quantum Commercialization, Leadership The current stage of development in quantum isn’t about figuring out if the technology works – it’s about making it work reliably, at scale, and for a purpose. That requires an all-hands-on-deck approach. Universities and research institutes must continue to push the frontiers of knowledge. Tech transfer offices should be empowered with more resources and flexibility to nurture quantum projects for the long haul. And crucially, external commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the experience and acceleration that most academic teams lack. It’s a symbiosis: internal teams bring depth of knowledge, external partners bring breadth of execution skills. --- > Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) represent the next evolution in software transparency and security risk management... - Published: 2024-04-25 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-bill-of-materials-cbom/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) represent the next evolution in software transparency and security risk management. As we have explored, a CBOM provides deep visibility into an application’s cryptographic underpinnings – an area that has often been opaque to security teams. By enumerating algorithms, keys, certificates, and their usage, CBOMs empower organizations to tackle challenges ranging from quantum cryptography transition and legacy crypto cleanup to regulatory compliance and rapid incident response to crypto vulnerabilities. For security architects and CISOs, adopting CBOM practices offers actionable benefits. It means no longer relying on ad-hoc methods or tribal knowledge to answer “What crypto are we using in our products?” Instead, you have a ready inventory to consult or share with stakeholders. It means being prepared for mandates (like those from OWASP, NIST, CISA, ETSI, etc.) that increasingly require demonstrating control over cryptography. And importantly, it means reducing risk: weaker algorithms are identified and phased out, certificate and key issues are caught early, and a clear roadmap exists for embracing new standards like post-quantum algorithms. --- > In a pioneering achievement, researchers have established a crucial connection necessary for the quantum internet... - Published: 2024-04-20 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/imperial-quantum-internet/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom --- > A cryptographic inventory is essentially a complete map of all cryptography used in an organization’s systems – and it is vital for understanding... - Published: 2024-04-13 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptographic-inventory/ - Categories: Post-Quantum A cryptographic inventory is essentially a complete map of all cryptography used in an organization’s systems – and it is vital for understanding quantum-vulnerable assets and planning remediation. In theory it sounds straightforward: “list all your cryptography.” In practice, however, building a full cryptographic inventory is an extremely complex, lengthy endeavor. Many enterprises find that even identifying all their IT assets is challenging, let alone uncovering every cryptographic component hidden within those assets. Cryptography often lurks in multiple layers of hardware, software, and firmware, making it difficult to spot. Despite the difficulty, performing a thorough inventory is strongly recommended (or required) by major security guidelines as the foundational step toward crypto-agility and quantum readiness. Without it, organizations cannot effectively assess where legacy algorithms (like RSA or ECC) are used and vulnerable, nor plan their transition to quantum-safe solutions. But executing a comprehensive cryptographic inventory is not a trivial “box-ticking” exercise. It demands careful strategy, a combination of automated tools and manual effort, and close coordination across the organization over a long period – often years for large enterprises. Performing this inventory is hard, but it sets the stage for all subsequent steps. --- > EU publishes "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography" - Published: 2024-04-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-recommendation-post-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe --- > A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's integration of quantum - Published: 2024-04-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/dod-quantum-bill/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States --- > Can we afford to relinquish control of robots to an AI whose behavior we have yet to learn how to govern with certainty? - Published: 2024-04-07 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/risks-ai-autonomous-robots/ - Categories: AI Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security - Tags: featured --- > Cybersecurity has swiftly moved from an IT issue to a core boardroom concern. Regulators around are increasingly holding boards... - Published: 2024-04-05 - Modified: 2025-09-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/boards-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Leadership Cybersecurity has swiftly moved from an IT issue to a core boardroom concern. Regulators around the world are increasingly holding boards of directors directly responsible for overseeing cyber risk - and even personally accountable when things go wrong. As someone who has served as an interim CISO and as a board member, I’ve witnessed this shift firsthand. --- > Microsoft and Quantinuum announced a significant achievement in quantum computing, demonstrating the most reliable logical qubits on record - Published: 2024-04-04 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/logical-qubit-microsoft/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States --- - Published: 2024-03-29 - Modified: 2024-03-29 - URL: https://postquantum.com/uncategorized/cyber-kinetic-risk-primer/ - Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security --- > Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative... - Published: 2024-03-20 - Modified: 2025-09-07 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-switzerland/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: Switzerland Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative entrepreneurship can make a country a major player in the second quantum revolution. In the span of two decades, Switzerland has built a world-class quantum R&D environment – featuring top universities (ETH, EPFL, Geneva, Basel) driving advances in computing and cryptography, national programs knitting these efforts together, and companies turning theory into practice. The country’s early bets on quantum science (e.g. funding NCCRs, supporting a QKD startup) are paying off in the form of global leadership in areas like quantum cryptography and instrumentation. As the quantum field moves from research to real-world implementation, Switzerland is well-positioned to benefit. Its strong talent pool continues to grow, with new graduates skilled in quantum engineering and computing coming out of dedicated programs. --- > To fortify its cyber-kinetic defenses in line with growing digital transformation and infrastructural expansions, Saudi Arabia must adopt... - Published: 2024-03-19 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-saudi-ksa/ - Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0 - Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia To fortify its cyber-kinetic defenses in line with growing digital transformation and infrastructural expansions, Saudi Arabia must adopt a multi-layered approach that encompasses regulation, technology, and human capital. To this end, the Kingdom has already embarked on a comprehensive strategy to fortify its cybersecurity posture in the 5G/AI era. The country established the National Cybersecurity Authority (NCA) to oversee and enhance the protection of its ICT infrastructure. This authority is responsible for setting cybersecurity standards, ensuring compliance, and facilitating coordination among various sectors to bolster the nation's cyber defenses. --- > 4,099 is the widely cited number of quantum bits one would need to factor a 2048-bit RSA key using Shor’s algorithm – in other words... - Published: 2024-03-05 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/4099-qubits-rsa/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day 4,099 is the widely cited number of quantum bits one would need to factor a 2048-bit RSA key using Shor’s algorithm – in other words, the notional threshold at which a quantum computer could crack one of today’s most common encryption standards. The claim has an alluring simplicity: if we could just build a quantum machine with a few thousand perfect qubits, decades of RSA-protected secrets would fall in seconds. But where does this “4,099 logical qubits” figure actually come from, and what does it really mean? The story behind it reveals both how far quantum algorithms have come and how much further quantum hardware needs to go. --- > Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issues "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum" - Published: 2024-02-27 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mas-quantum-advisory/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: ASEAN, Singapore --- > The race is on to quantum‑proof the world’s telecom networks. With cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) projected to arrive... - Published: 2024-02-26 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/telecom-pqc-challenges/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: Telecommunications The race is on to quantum‑proof the world’s telecom networks. With cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) projected to arrive by the 2030s, global communications providers face an urgent mandate to upgrade their security foundations. Today’s mobile and fixed‑line networks rely on public-key cryptography that quantum algorithms could eventually break. In response, the telecom industry is turning to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) as the primary defense. Yet adopting PQC at telecom scale is a complex journey, entailing far more than a simple swap of algorithms. It demands strategic foresight and technical rigor to overcome unique architectural and operational hurdles. As an anecdotal example, my team has been working with one telecommunications provider on quantum readiness for over 10 years, and the company is not even close to completing their PQC migration. --- > Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which qubits can be sent - Published: 2024-02-14 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-repeaters/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which quantum information (qubits) can be sent without being lost or corrupted . They tackle a fundamental challenge: photons carrying qubits tend to get absorbed or scatter as they travel through fiber or air, and quantum states can decohere (lose their quantum properties) due to environmental noise. --- > The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. - Published: 2024-02-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-united-kingdom/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: United Kingdom The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. The country’s comprehensive approach – supporting research excellence, investing in infrastructure and industry collaboration, and aligning with national goals in security and economy – provides a strong platform for future success. Over the next decade, the UK is expected to deliver tangible quantum innovations: from prototype quantum computers accessible to researchers and industry, to secure quantum communication links safeguarding data, to quantum sensors revealing and navigating the world in fundamentally new ways. --- > Researchers from Nord Quantique have developed an innovative error correction system that drastically reduces the number of qubits needed... - Published: 2024-02-10 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/error-correction-nord-quantique/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Canada --- > In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit... - Published: 2024-01-15 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/origin-quantum-wukong/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit superconducting quantum processor. Launched on January 6, 2024, this third-generation quantum computer is China’s first home-grown superconducting quantum computer and the most advanced of its kind in the country . The system – named after the Monkey King Sun Wukong (famed for “72 transformations” in Chinese legend) – symbolizes its powerful capabilities and marks China’s official entry into the era of accessible quantum computing . --- > Entanglement-as-a-Service (EAAS) is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly... - Published: 2024-01-10 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-service-eaas/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Entanglement-as-a-Service is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly rooted in quantum physics, its current development is accelerating through global research efforts, and its promise has caught the attention of the telecommunications industry and beyond. While challenges remain in scaling and integration, the trajectory is clear: EaaS and quantum networks will likely be as transformative in the 21st century as the internet was in the 20th, opening new frontiers in secure communication, computing, and sensing. --- > Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum derive their security from cryptographic algorithms – mathematical puzzles... - Published: 2024-01-09 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptocurrencies-bitcoin/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Crypto Security Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum derive their security from cryptographic algorithms – mathematical puzzles that are practically impossible for classical computers to solve in any reasonable time. However, the emergence of quantum computing threatens this security assumption. Unlike classical machines, quantum computers leverage quantum mechanics to perform certain computations exponentially faster, potentially breaking the cryptographic foundations of blockchain systems. While quantum computers remain in their infancy today, future quantum breakthroughs could undermine digital signatures, wallet security, and even aspects of blockchain consensus if no preventive measures are taken. --- > The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded, non-aligned, recursive self-improvement and disseminating new capabilities to other AIs is a concern - Published: 2024-01-01 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/marin-statement-on-ai-risk/ - Categories: AI Security, Leadership - Tags: featured The rapid development of AI brings both extraordinary potential and unprecedented risks. AI systems are increasingly demonstrating emergent behaviors, and in some cases, are even capable of self-improvement. This advancement, while remarkable, raises critical questions about our ability to control and understand these systems fully. --- > India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining... - Published: 2023-12-29 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-india/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies - Tags: India India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining its rich legacy in fundamental physics with modern innovation frameworks to advance quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. The coming years are poised to witness India transitioning from prototyping to implementation: quantum computers solving domain-specific problems, quantum-encrypted channels protecting national data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that drive both science and industry. --- > IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances.... - Published: 2023-12-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-133-qubit-heron-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances. The IBM Quantum Heron chip was unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023 as the company’s latest milestone in its quantum computing roadmap. IBM touts Heron as a next-generation processor that delivers significantly improved performance and reliability compared to its predecessors. This 133-qubit device introduces new technologies aimed at boosting quantum computation capability while laying the groundwork for IBM’s future quantum systems. --- > 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - Published: 2023-12-22 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-timeline-report/ - Categories: Industry News --- > IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. - Published: 2023-12-11 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-condor/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023, Condor marks the first quantum chip to surpass 1,000 qubits, a milestone many in the field have eyed as a crucial step toward practical quantum computing. The new processor, built on IBM’s heavy-hexagonal qubit architecture and cross-resonance gate technology, pushes the boundaries of scale in quantum hardware. With Condor, IBM more than doubles its previous qubit count record and sets a new high-water mark in the global race for quantum computing power. --- > Modern, high-stakes SIM-swapping is increasingly taking the form of an organized conspiracy, with multiple threat actors operating as a gang... - Published: 2023-12-05 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/sim-swapping-economy/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > "Quantum security" is a term that is increasingly being used. With everyone having their own definition of the term. - Published: 2023-11-08 - Modified: 2025-09-14 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-security-terminology/ - Categories: Post-Quantum "Quantum security" is a term that is increasingly being used. With everyone having their own definition of the term. It can carry multiple meanings depending on context, but so do other related terms. The whole field is fairly new and related terms are not yet clearly defined. So this is my attempt to untangle the ambiguity by exploring what quantum security commonly refers to, how related terms like quantum resistance, quantum-safe cryptography, quantum resilience, quantum readiness, post-quantum security, and post-quantum cryptography (PQC) are defined, and how different organizations and standards bodies use these terms. --- > The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography," - Published: 2023-11-06 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-ncsc-post-quantum-cryptography/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom --- > Verified crypto-exchange accounts have become a hot commodity on the dark web, with login credentials available for as little as $20... - Published: 2023-11-05 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/verified-crypto-accounts-dark-web/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Why multiple quantum computing paradigms? The goal is the same – realize a scalable, universal quantum computer – but the approaches differ... - Published: 2023-11-01 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/taxonomy-modalities/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities - Tags: featured Over the past few decades, researchers have devised multiple quantum computing paradigms – different models and physical implementations of quantum computers – each addressing these challenges in unique ways. In essence, there is no single “quantum computer” design; instead, there are many parallel approaches, each with its own principles, trade-offs, and technological hurdles. --- > A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99.5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom... - Published: 2023-10-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quera-neutral-atom/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States --- > Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons that have been... - Published: 2023-10-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-cluster-state/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons (particles of light) that have been prepared in a highly entangled state known as a cluster state. It falls under the paradigm of measurement-based quantum computing (MBQC), often called the one-way quantum computer. In this scheme, a large entangled resource state (the photonic cluster state) is generated first, and then the computation is carried out by performing a sequence of single-qubit measurements on the individual photons. --- > Over 1,000 controllable atomic qubits in one single plane achieved by researchers from TU Darmstadt in Germany. As published in arXiv for now... - Published: 2023-10-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/1000-atomic-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe, Germany --- > Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties... - Published: 2023-10-24 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-memories/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties. In essence, a quantum memory is the quantum-mechanical analog of classical computer memory or RAM . --- > Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms... - Published: 2023-10-18 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/ion-trap-neutral-atom-mbqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms – to realize this model. In a trapped-ion MBQC, a string of ions (charged atoms) is confined and entangled via electromagnetic fields and laser pulses. The ions’ internal states serve as qubits that can be entangled pairwise or globally using multi-ion gate operations, preparing a cluster state. --- > Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology... - Published: 2023-10-18 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-lidar-quantum-radar/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology and likely timelines: expect to hear more about quantum LiDAR in commercial products soon, while quantum radar will continue to be a strategic project for defense and require further breakthroughs to reach its full promise. Both, however, underscore the transformative power of quantum technology. As these sensors evolve, they could redefine how we perceive the world, achieving what was once thought impossible – like spotting the “invisible” stealth plane, or navigating a pitch-black, foggy road with the same confidence as a clear day. --- > Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons... - Published: 2023-10-14 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-3/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons in a boson sampling experiment . Unveiled in October 2023 by a team led by renowned physicist Pan Jianwei, Jiuzhang 3.0 pushes the boundaries of photonic quantum computing with a demonstration that is 10 quadrillion times faster at solving a Gaussian boson sampling problem than the fastest classical supercomputers . This milestone firmly advances the frontier of quantum computational advantage in photonics, outpacing both the team’s earlier machines and rival systems worldwide. --- > Researchers from Harvard, MIT and QuEra have achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by successfully implementing... - Published: 2023-10-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/neutral-atom-breakthrough/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States --- > Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation... - Published: 2023-10-11 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-energy-utilities/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Energy & Utilities Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation at scales classical computers cannot handle. For example, routing power through a grid with thousands of control decisions or modeling the chemistry inside a battery are tasks that overwhelm today’s fastest supercomputers. Quantum computers leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to examine a vast number of configurations simultaneously, potentially delivering solutions faster or more accurately. The result could be more efficient energy distribution, smarter storage solutions, and accelerated innovation in clean energy technology. --- > Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction... - Published: 2023-10-10 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction – a sandwich of two superconductors separated by a thin insulator which allows tunneling of Cooper pairs. When cooled to extremely low temperatures (≈10–20 millikelvin), these circuits exhibit quantized energy levels that can serve as the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states of a qubit . --- > Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharma and biotech industries. Its ability to tackle problems... - Published: 2023-10-09 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-use-cases-pharma-biotech/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharmaceuticals and biotechnology industries. Its ability to tackle problems of staggering complexity – whether simulating the quantum behavior of drug molecules, analyzing massive genomic datasets for personalized medicine, or optimizing the myriad decisions in R&D and supply chains – offers a new computational paradigm for an innovation-hungry sector. We have seen that even in its nascent state, quantum technology is already making waves: early experiments have accelerated molecular discovery, quantum sensors are breaking new ground in biomedical imaging , and companies big and small are gearing up through partnerships and pilot projects to be part of this coming revolution . --- > The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is perhaps the first country in the world to explicitly entrench AI in its national development plans... - Published: 2023-10-06 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/ai-oasis-ais-role-in-saudi-vision-2030/ - Categories: Society 5.0 - Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia --- > Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree... - Published: 2023-10-06 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree of freedom of a single photon, such as its polarization (horizontal = |0⟩, vertical = |1⟩), or its presence/absence in a given mode (occupation number basis: no photon = |0⟩, one photon = |1⟩ in a mode), or time-bin (photon arriving early vs late). Photons are appealing qubits because they travel at the speed of light, have very low environmental interaction (hence can maintain coherence over long distances, which is why photons are used in quantum communication), and operate at room temperature. --- > Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum - Published: 2023-10-06 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/holonomic-geometric-phase/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum logic operations. In a holonomic gate, the quantum state is manipulated by adiabatically (or sometimes non-adiabatically) moving the system’s parameters along a closed loop in parameter space, causing the state to acquire a geometric phase or holonomy. --- > Cryptosec summary of the dark web manual for cash-out of illicit-origin crypto assets - "Rags to Riches Guide" - Published: 2023-10-05 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/illicit-crypto-withdrawal/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - Published: 2023-10-05 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/trapped-ion-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. --- > Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum... - Published: 2023-10-04 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-topological/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum computing. In essence, ATQC uses slow, continuous changes in a quantum system’s Hamiltonian (an adiabatic evolution) to perform computations, while encoding information in topologically protected states for inherent error resistance. --- > Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees... - Published: 2023-10-03 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/topological-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees of freedom, and to perform quantum gates by braiding or otherwise manipulating these topological objects. The central promise of topological QC is built-in error protection: information stored in a topological form is inherently protected from local noise by global properties (similar to how a knot’s existence doesn’t depend on the exact rope configuration, only on its topological class). --- > Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing... - Published: 2023-10-03 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neuromorphic-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing: neuromorphic computing and quantum computing. Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the architecture of the human brain – it uses networks of artificial neurons and synapses (often implemented in specialized hardware) to process information in a highly parallel and energy-efficient way, much like brains do. --- > International interbank payments rely on multiple layers of classical cryptography to ensure security from end to end. - Published: 2023-10-02 - Modified: 2025-09-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptograpy-interbank-payment/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: Finance & Banking International interbank payments rely on multiple layers of classical cryptography to ensure security from end to end. When a user initiates a cross-border transfer at their local bank, cryptographic mechanisms protect the transaction at every stage - from the customer’s online banking session, through the bank’s internal systems, across the SWIFT interbank messaging network, to settlement in a central Real-Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) system. --- > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics... - Published: 2023-10-02 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics. It generalizes the idea of quantum annealing beyond just optimization. In AQC, one encodes the solution of an arbitrary computation in the ground state of some problem Hamiltonian $H_{\text{problem}}$. Instead of applying discrete gates, one evolves the quantum state continuously under a time-dependent Hamiltonian $H(t)$ from an initial easy state to the final state that encodes the answer. --- > Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS... - Published: 2023-10-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/silicon-based-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS fabrication infrastructure. The most common silicon qubit implementations are spin qubits – using the spin of an electron or the spin of an atomic nucleus embedded in silicon as a qubit. --- > One well-known example for spin-qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom... - Published: 2023-10-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/spin-qubits-defects/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities In addition to silicon, spin qubits can be realized in other solid-state systems. One well-known example is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom next to a vacancy in the carbon lattice creates an electronic spin-1 system that can be used as qubit. --- > Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is... - Published: 2023-09-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/measurement-based-mbqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is driven entirely by measurements on an entangled resource state . Instead of applying a sequence of unitary gates to a register of qubits, MBQC starts with a highly entangled state of many qubits (typically a cluster state) and then performs single-qubit measurements in a carefully chosen order and basis. --- > The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address... - Published: 2023-09-29 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mitre-coalition/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States --- > Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic... - Published: 2023-09-28 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neutral-atom-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic states. A popular approach is to use optical tweezers (focused laser beams) to trap arrays of neutral atoms (like rubidium or cesium). These atoms have internal states (usually hyperfine ground states) that serve as |0⟩ and |1⟩, similar to ion qubits. The key mechanism for entangling neutral atom qubits is to excite atoms to highly excited electronic states called Rydberg states. --- > Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum... - Published: 2023-09-25 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-annealing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum tunneling and the adiabatic principle. It's a special case of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC). The idea is to encode a problem (typically an NP-hard optimization) into an energy landscape, where the lowest energy (ground) state corresponds to the optimal solution. A quantum annealer starts in the easily prepared ground state of a simple initial Hamiltonian (energy function) and slowly interpolates to a final Hamiltonian that represents the problem . If the interpolation (anneal) is slow enough, the system is supposed to remain in its ground state (by the adiabatic theorem) and end up in the problem’s optimal state. --- > As Saudi Arabia steers towards its Vision 2030 goals, the emphasis on cybersecurity is not just relevant; it's fundamental. - Published: 2023-09-21 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Society 5.0, Cyber-Kinetic Security - Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia --- > On this page, I've compiled a selection of my intro articles on AI and ML security (in no particular order). This collection will continue to expand... - Published: 2023-09-20 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-security-101/ - Categories: AI Security --- > As AI continues its meteoric rise, the need for a dedicated Chief AI Security Officer (CAISO) becomes increasingly evident - Published: 2023-09-20 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-ai-security-officer-caiso/ - Categories: Leadership, AI Security With AI’s breakneck expansion, the distinctions between ‘cybersecurity’ and ‘AI security’ are becoming increasingly pronounced. While both disciplines aim to safeguard digital assets, their focus and the challenges they address diverge in significant ways. Traditional cybersecurity is primarily about defending digital infrastructures from external threats, breaches, and unauthorized access. On the other hand, AI security has to address unique challenges posed by artificial intelligence systems, ensuring not just their robustness but also their ethical and transparent operation as well as unique internal vulnerabilities intrinsic to AI models and algorithms. --- > Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker"... - Published: 2023-09-19 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-walk/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker" (such as a particle or an agent) moves step by step in a certain space (like a line or a graph) with some probability distribution. In a quantum walk, the walker instead evolves in a superposition of positions, following the rules of quantum mechanics. --- > A Trojan attack in a neural network typically involves injecting malicious data into this training dataset. This 'poisoned' data is crafted in such a way... - Published: 2023-09-18 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/neural-trojan-attacks/ - Categories: AI Security Neural networks learn from data. They are trained on large datasets to recognize patterns or make decisions. A Trojan attack in a neural network typically involves injecting malicious data into this training dataset. This 'poisoned' data is crafted in such a way that the neural network begins to associate it with a certain output, creating a hidden vulnerability. When activated, this vulnerability can cause the neural network to behave unpredictably or make incorrect decisions, often without any noticeable signs of tampering. --- > Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics... - Published: 2023-09-16 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/fibonacci-anyons/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics beyond bosons or fermions. When two non-Abelian anyons like Fibonacci anyons are exchanged (braided) in space, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation (not just a phase change as with Abelian anyons) . --- > How Q-Day is likely to unfold and why its arrival, while not a sudden Armageddon, will fundamentally change how we secure our world. - Published: 2023-09-15 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-what-will-happen/ - Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum As the world edges closer to the era of powerful quantum computers, experts warn of an approaching “Q-Day” (sometimes called Y2Q or the Quantum Apocalypse): the day a cryptographically relevant quantum computer can break our current encryption. Unlike the Y2K bug—which had a fixed deadline and was mostly defused before the clock struck midnight—Q-Day won’t announce itself with a clear date or time. We won’t see computers suddenly crash or planes fall from the sky at a stroke of midnight. Instead, when quantum code-breaking arrives, the world might not notice anything visibly “wrong” at first. Websites will still load, apps will open, and bank transactions will go through. But underneath that normalcy, one of the fundamental pillars of digital trust will have crumbled. Imagine waking up the morning after Q-Day: all the data and communications long protected by encryption—financial records, personal emails, business secrets, even national security intel—are no longer guaranteed safe. It sounds dramatic, but it won’t be chaos in an instant. Rather, it marks the start of a new, more dangerous phase of the digital age. Let's explore how Q-Day is likely to unfold and why its arrival, while not a sudden Armageddon, will fundamentally change how we secure our world. --- > Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt... - Published: 2023-09-14 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-boost-bang-bang/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt changes in the control parameters – essentially applying bang–bang control to quantum annealing. In control theory, a bang–bang controller is one that switches sharply between extreme values (on/off) rather than varying smoothly . --- > Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics... - Published: 2023-09-13 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dissipative-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics – in other words, it uses controlled dissipation (interaction with an environment and irreversible processes) as a resource for computing. --- > Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles... - Published: 2023-09-12 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/majorana-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles. These modes emerge in certain superconducting systems as zero-energy states bound to defects or boundaries. Uniquely, information stored in a pair of Majorana modes is nonlocally encoded – effectively an electron's quantum state is split between two separated locations. This topological encoding makes the qubit highly insensitive to local disturbances . --- > Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations... - Published: 2023-09-10 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/biological-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations or that we could harness biological processes to implement quantum computing. This paradigm is highly exploratory and not yet realized in any form, lying at the intersection of quantum physics, biology, and computer science. --- > Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution... - Published: 2023-09-10 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/boson-sampling/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution of indistinguishable bosons (typically photons) that have passed through a passive linear interferometer . In simpler terms, one prepares multiple photons, sends them through a network of beam splitters and phase shifters (a linear optical circuit), and then measures how many photons exit in each output mode. --- > Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information... - Published: 2023-09-09 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-cellular-automata/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information processing happens in many parallel identical cells interacting with neighbors under a uniform rule . It’s a quantum counterpart to classical cellular automata (like Conway’s Game of Life, but quantum). --- > Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state... - Published: 2023-09-08 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/time-crystals-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state exhibits periodic motion in time. This is analogous to how ordinary crystals break spatial translation symmetry by arranging atoms in a repeating lattice pattern in space. In a time crystal, the system’s constituents oscillate in a regular pattern without drifting toward thermal equilibrium. --- > It is in Saudi Arabia that we see perhaps the most tangible manifestation of the physical world Society 5.0 imagines. - Published: 2023-09-07 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-society5/ - Categories: Society 5.0 - Tags: Japan, Middle East, Saudi Arabia --- > DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer... - Published: 2023-09-06 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dna-based-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer. This could mean DNA acting as qubits, facilitating quantum interactions, or serving as a structural scaffold for other qubits. It's an intersection of quantum technology with biotechnology and nanotechnology. --- > The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing... - Published: 2023-09-05 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/one-clean-qubit-dqc1/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing paradigm where only a single qubit starts in a pure (or “clean”) state while all other qubits are in a completely mixed state . --- > Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare... - Published: 2023-09-04 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/exotic-emerging-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare to mainstream quantum computers, and what implications they might hold for the future. We also introduce each paradigm in turn – from quantum cellular automata and biological quantum computing to holonomic gates and time crystals – explaining each in high-level, non-technical terms. --- > Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously... - Published: 2023-09-03 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-continuous-variable/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously varying quantities (like the amplitude or phase of an electromagnetic field) instead of discrete two-level systems (qubits). --- > Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems... - Published: 2023-09-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/hybrid-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems with one another (and often with classical systems) to create a more powerful or versatile computer. This can mean hybridizing physical qubit modalities (e.g., using both superconducting qubits and photonic qubits together), or mixing analog and digital quantum methods, or even quantum-classical hybrids where a quantum processor works in tandem with a classical co-processor. --- > Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints - Published: 2023-09-01 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-ldpc-cluster-states/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints, analogous to classical LDPC codes. In a Quantum LDPC code (which is typically a stabilizer code), each stabilizer generator (parity-check operator) acts on only a small, fixed number of physical qubits, and each qubit participates in only a few such checks . --- > Issues with negotiating and licensing SEPs slow down 5G network development and ultimately have a negative impact on the ecosystem as a whole - Published: 2023-08-30 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-politics/ - Categories: 5G Security - Tags: Telecommunications --- > Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer... - Published: 2023-08-24 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/gate-based-universal-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer. In this model, computations are carried out by applying sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits), analogous to how classical computers use circuits of logic gates on bits. A gate-model quantum computer leverages uniquely quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and interference – to explore a vast computational space in parallel, offering potential speedups for certain problems far beyond classical capabilities . --- > The increasing prevalence of fragmented machine learning models in today's technology landscape introduces a unique and complex set... - Published: 2023-08-21 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/model-fragmentation-ai/ - Categories: AI Security Model fragmentation is the phenomenon where a single machine-learning model is not used uniformly across all instances, platforms, or applications. Instead, different versions, configurations, or subsets of the model are deployed based on specific needs, constraints, or local optimizations. This can result in multiple fragmented instances of the original model operating in parallel, each potentially having different performance characteristics, data sensitivities, and security vulnerabilities. --- > Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve... - Published: 2023-08-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-adiabatic/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve problems. In both approaches, a problem is encoded into a landscape of energy states (a quantum Hamiltonian), and the system is guided to its lowest-energy state which corresponds to the optimal solution . --- > Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - Published: 2023-08-21 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/cellular-automata-cells/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. --- > In the ever-evolving landscape of AI and cybersecurity, the need to address model evasion tactics stands out as a critical challenge... - Published: 2023-08-16 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-model-evasion/ - Categories: AI Security Model Evasion in the context of machine learning for cybersecurity refers to the tactical manipulation of input data, algorithmic processes, or outputs to mislead or subvert the intended operations of a machine learning model. In mathematical terms, evasion can be considered an optimization problem, where the objective is to minimize or maximize a certain loss function without altering the essential characteristics of the input data. This could involve modifying the input data x such that f(x) does not equal the true label y, where f is the classifier and x is the input vector. --- > We have entered a new era where age-old expectations of privacy must be redefined for the quantum age... - Published: 2023-08-09 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ethics-privacy-quantum-sensing/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum sensing sits at a crossroads of promise and peril. On one hand, it embodies the awe-inspiring potential of quantum technology – offering us new eyes and ears to perceive the world in richer detail than ever before. It could save lives by finding disaster survivors behind rubble, improve medical diagnostics by monitoring vitals without contact, and enable scientific discoveries by observing nature’s tiniest forces. On the other hand, the very features that make it powerful also make it dangerous to core values like privacy, freedom, and autonomy. An ultra-sensitive sensor does not discriminate between benign and sensitive information; it collects everything, and therein lies the risk. Without conscious checks, we risk drifting into a society where virtually no aspect of our lives is unobservable, where privacy exists only if one is off-grid in the literal sense (far from any quantum sensors). --- > Researchers developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical... - Published: 2023-08-07 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/new-hybrid-quantum-monte-carlo/ - Categories: Industry News Researchers Xiaosi Xu and Ying Li have developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical simulations. The breakthrough, published in Quantum in 2023, addresses the notorious sign problem in quantum Monte Carlo calculations – a key issue that causes explosive uncertainty in simulations of electrons and other fermions. By incorporating quantum data into the Monte Carlo sampling process, the new algorithm sharply reduces the bias and error that plague fully classical methods, potentially enabling more precise predictions of molecular energies and material properties on today’s imperfect quantum hardware. --- > While the exact arrival date of Q-Day remains uncertain, the necessity for immediate and strategic preparation does not. - Published: 2023-07-27 - Modified: 2025-09-03 - URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-crqc-predictions/ - Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum While CRQCs capable of breaking current public key encryption algorithms have not yet materialized, technological advancements are pushing us towards what is ominously dubbed 'Q-Day'—the day a CRQC becomes operational. Many experts believe that Q-Day, or Y2Q as it's sometimes called, is just around the corner, suggesting it could occur by 2030 or even sooner; some speculate it may already exist within secret government laboratories. --- > Unlike standard encryption techniques, which require data to be decrypted before any processing or analysis, Homomorphic Encryption allows - Published: 2023-07-21 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/homomorphic-encryption-ml/ - Categories: AI Security Homomorphic Encryption has transitioned from being a mathematical curiosity to a linchpin in fortifying machine learning workflows against data vulnerabilities. Its complex nature notwithstanding, the unparalleled privacy and security benefits it offers are compelling enough to warrant its growing ubiquity. As machine learning integrates increasingly with sensitive sectors like healthcare, finance, and national security, the imperative for employing encryption techniques that are both potent and efficient becomes inescapable. --- > Understanding and addressing data poisoning is critical, not just from a technical standpoint but also due to its far-reaching real-world implications - Published: 2023-07-19 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/data-poisoning-ml/ - Categories: AI Security Data poisoning is a targeted form of attack wherein an adversary deliberately manipulates the training data to compromise the efficacy of machine learning models. The training phase of a machine learning model is particularly vulnerable to this type of attack because most algorithms are designed to fit their parameters as closely as possible to the training data. An attacker with sufficient knowledge of the dataset and model architecture can introduce 'poisoned' data points into the training set, affecting the model's parameter tuning. This leads to alterations in the model's future performance that align with the attacker’s objectives, which could range from making incorrect predictions and misclassifications to more sophisticated outcomes like data leakage or revealing sensitive information. --- > Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response - Published: 2023-07-19 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-mcc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, 5G Security - Tags: Telecommunications Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response services (police, fire, EMS), military units, utilities, and other critical operators to relay vital information when lives or infrastructure are at stake. These networks prioritize reliability, availability, and resilience – they must remain operational even during disasters or infrastructure outages. For example, in a hurricane that knocks out commercial cell towers and power, robust MCC networks are expected to “rise above” the chaos and keep first responders connected. Communications security is equally paramount: in crisis scenarios, sensitive information (tactical plans, personal data, etc.) must be protected from interception or tampering, even as the network withstands physical disruptions. --- > Semantic adversarial attacks represent a specialized form of adversarial manipulation where the attacker focuses on twisting the semantic meaning - Published: 2023-07-19 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/semantic-adversarial-attacks/ - Categories: AI Security Semantic adversarial attacks represent a specialized form of adversarial manipulation where the attacker focuses not on random or arbitrary alterations to the data but specifically on twisting the semantic meaning or context behind it. Unlike traditional adversarial attacks that often aim to add noise or make pixel-level changes to deceive machine learning models, semantic attacks target the inherent understanding of the data. For example, instead of just altering the color of an image to mislead a visual recognition system, a semantic attack might mislabel the image to make the model believe it's seeing something entirely different. --- > The AI alignment problem sits at the core of all future predictions of AI’s safety. It describes the complex challenge of ensuring AI systems act... - Published: 2023-06-29 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-alignment-problem/ - Categories: AI Security The AI alignment problem sits at the core of all future predictions of AI’s safety. It describes the complex challenge of ensuring AI systems act in ways that are beneficial and not harmful to humans, aligning AI goals and decision-making processes with those of humans, no matter how sophisticated or powerful the AI system becomes. Our trust in the future of AI rests on whether we believe it is possible to guarantee alignment. --- > While the number of qubits in a quantum processor is an important metric, fidelity and error correction are equally, if not more, significant - Published: 2023-06-19 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fidelity-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Fidelity in quantum computing measures the accuracy of quantum operations, including how effectively a quantum computer can perform calculations without errors. In quantum systems, noise and decoherence can degrade the coherence of quantum states, leading to errors and reduced computational accuracy. Errors are not just common; they're expected. Quantum states are delicate, easily disturbed by external factors like temperature fluctuations, electromagnetic fields, and even stray cosmic rays. --- > Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally... - Published: 2023-06-10 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-logistics/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Supply Chain & Logistics Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally new ways holds the promise of solving the longstanding puzzles of logistics – from finding optimal delivery routes and precise demand forecasts to orchestrating entire global supply networks with unprecedented efficiency. We’ve seen that even in these early stages, quantum technologies are demonstrating value in pilot projects: optimizing routes in near-real time , improving inventory predictions , and enabling more resilient planning through fast scenario analysis. --- > "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL) is a cybersecurity threat where adversaries collect encrypted data today to decrypt it in the future - Published: 2023-06-08 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/harvest-now-decrypt-later-hndl/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL), also known as "Store Now, Decrypt Later" (SNDL), is a concerning risk where adversaries collect encrypted data with the intent to decrypt it once quantum computing becomes capable of breaking current encryption methods. This is the quantum computing's ticking time bomb, with potential implications for every encrypted byte of data currently considered secure. --- > While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant PQC challenges that must be understood and addressed... - Published: 2023-06-01 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-pqc-challenges/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The transition to post-quantum cryptography is a complex, multi-faceted process that requires careful planning, significant investment, and a proactive, adaptable approach. By addressing these challenges head-on and preparing for the dynamic cryptographic landscape of the future, organizations can achieve crypto-agility and secure their digital assets against the emerging quantum threat. --- > A very brief history of artificial intelligence (AI). From Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace to OpenAI and ChatGPT - Published: 2023-05-23 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/history-ai/ - Categories: AI Security As early as the mid-19th century, Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace created the Analytical Engine, a mechanical general-purpose computer. Lovelace is often credited with the idea of a machine that could manipulate symbols in accordance with rules and that it might act upon other than just numbers, touching upon concepts central to AI. --- > While ML offers extensive benefits, it also presents significant challenges, among them, one of the most prominent ones is biases in ML models... - Published: 2023-05-11 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ml-biases/ - Categories: AI Security While ML offers extensive benefits, it also presents significant challenges, among them, one of the most prominent ones is biases in ML models. Bias in ML refers to systematic errors or influences in a model's predictions that lead to unequal treatment of different groups. These biases are problematic as they can reinforce existing inequalities and unfair practices, translating to real-world consequences like discriminatory hiring or unequal law enforcement, thus creating environments of injustice and inequality. --- > Quantum error correction (QEC) is critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum... - Published: 2023-05-10 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-error-correction/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum error correction (QEC) is therefore critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum computer can continue to operate correctly even when individual operations or qubits error out. Unlike classical error correction – which can simply duplicate bits and use majority vote – quantum error correction must delicately handle qubit errors indirectly (via entanglement and syndrome measurements) to avoid collapsing the quantum information. The development of QEC codes in the mid-1990s proved that robust quantum computation is possible in principle, so long as the physical error rates are below a certain threshold. Below this error-rate “threshold,” encoding qubits in larger codes yields exponentially suppressed logical error rates, enabling in theory arbitrarily long quantum computations. Achieving and operating below these error thresholds is one of the grand challenges on the road to practical quantum computers. --- > Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. It is not just about changes to a few systems; it requires an enterprise-wide... - Published: 2023-05-08 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-enterprise-changes/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In my work with various clients, I frequently encounter a significant misunderstanding about the scope of preparations required to become quantum ready. Many assume that the transition to a post-quantum world will be straightforward, involving only minor patches to a few systems or simple upgrades to hardware security modules (HSMs). Unfortunately, this is a dangerous misconception. Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. --- > Report published. Claiming a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could lead to losses of between $2 and $3.3 trillion in GDP. - Published: 2023-04-03 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-us-financial-system/ - Categories: Industry News --- > In 2022 NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption... - Published: 2023-03-28 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nists-pqc-technical/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In 2022, after a multi-year evaluation, NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption (key encapsulation) and digital signatures. Kyber is an encryption/key-establishment scheme (a Key Encapsulation Mechanism, KEM) based on lattice problems, while Dilithium (also lattice-based) and SPHINCS+ (hash-based) are digital signature schemes. --- > Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the internet - Published: 2023-03-08 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-networks-101/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the classical internet. They hold the promise of fundamentally secure communications and new quantum information capabilities. While challenges remain, the continuous advances in hardware and protocols, bolstered by significant global investments, make it likely that many of us will experience the quantum network revolution within our careers. --- > Adversarial attacks specifically target the vulnerabilities in AI and ML systems. At a high level, these attacks involve inputting carefully crafted data... - Published: 2023-03-01 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/adversarial-attacks-ai/ - Categories: AI Security Adversarial attacks specifically target the vulnerabilities in AI and ML systems. At a high level, these attacks involve inputting carefully crafted data into an AI system to trick it into making an incorrect decision or classification. For instance, an adversarial attack could manipulate the pixels in a digital image so subtly that a human eye wouldn't notice the change, but a machine learning model would classify it incorrectly, say, identifying a stop sign as a 45-mph speed limit sign, with potentially disastrous consequences in an autonomous driving context. --- > Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step towards... - Published: 2023-02-24 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-breakthrough-error-correction/ - Categories: Industry News --- > Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. - Published: 2023-02-15 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-radar/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. In theory, it promises detection capabilities beyond the reach of conventional radar, potentially piercing the invisibility of stealth aircraft and opening new possibilities in sensing. From its conceptual origins in quantum physics labs to recent experimental prototypes, quantum radar has become a hot topic in defense tech circles and beyond. In this article, we explore what quantum radar is, how it works, its development history, key experiments, applications in military and civilian domains, its current status and challenges, comparisons with classical radar, the security implications of its adoption, the role of AI in enhancing it, and what the future might hold for this quantum-powered sensor. --- > The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into lattices and hashes... - Published: 2023-02-09 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-digital-signatures/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into the new territory of lattices and hashes. It’s an exciting time for cryptography, and a critical time for security practitioners. Authentication, integrity, and non-repudiation are security properties we must preserve at all costs, even in the face of revolutionary computing technologies. With careful preparation, the transition to quantum-resistant signatures can be smooth, and we’ll retain the strong foundation of digital trust that modern cybersecurity is built on – both now and for decades to come. --- > Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental... - Published: 2023-02-08 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-intro-taxonomy/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and more – means it can achieve what was once thought impossible: detecting the seemingly undetectable. This field stands at a nexus between quantum physics and the real world, turning esoteric quantum effects into practical tools. As the technology matures, we will gain new eyes and ears (and noses and fingers, metaphorically) for science and industry. We’ll “see” underground structures without digging, “hear” the whispers of neuronal electric currents without probes, “feel” the drift of time in different gravitational potentials, and maybe even sniff out particles from beyond the Standard Model. --- > In a new study, researchers managed to create entanglement between two quantum emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly... - Published: 2023-01-29 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/two-light-sources-entanglement/ - Categories: Industry News --- > Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity... - Published: 2023-01-10 - Modified: 2025-09-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Q-Day Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity. In this article, we’ve seen that CRQCs are defined by their ability to execute quantum algorithms (like Shor’s and Grover’s) at a scale that breaks the cryptographic primitives we rely on daily. While still likely years (if not a decade or more) away, their eventual arrival is not a question of “if” but “when,” according to most experts . --- > Gradient-based attacks are sophisticated exploits that leverage the mathematical underpinnings of ML models and primarily focus... - Published: 2023-01-03 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gradient-based-attacks/ - Categories: AI Security Gradient-based attacks refer to a suite of methods employed by adversaries to exploit the vulnerabilities inherent in ML models, focusing particularly on the optimization processes these models utilize to learn and make predictions. These attacks are called “gradient-based” because they primarily exploit the gradients, mathematical entities representing the rate of change of the model’s output with respect to its parameters, computed during the training of ML models. The gradients act as a guide, showing the direction in which the model’s parameters need to be adjusted to minimize the error in its predictions. By manipulating these gradients, attackers can cause the model to misbehave, make incorrect predictions, or, in extreme cases, reveal sensitive information about the training data. --- > Factoring a 2048-bit number is in a different universe of complexity, requiring thousands of high-quality qubits and billions of operations... - Published: 2023-01-01 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-48-bit-rsa-2048/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Factoring a 2048-bit number is in a different universe of complexity, requiring thousands of high-quality qubits and billions of operations – a capability that will likely require years of additional scientific and engineering breakthroughs. The current milestone, while remarkable for quantum computing, does not change the security status of RSA or other cryptographic systems. It does, however, add momentum to the quantum computing race and offers valuable lessons for the next milestones. For those in the cybersecurity community, achievements like the 48-bit factorization are a signal to keep watching the horizon. No need for alarm – RSA-2048 is still safe for now – but the wise move is to prepare for a post-quantum world before the storm arrives. The fact that researchers are already trying (and somewhat succeeding) to factor numbers in non-traditional ways (using lattice problems and hybrid algorithms) should encourage a transition to quantum-resistant cryptography sooner rather than later. --- > The consulting firm of the future won’t be defined by a choice between human expertise and AI - it will thrive on the partnership between the two. - Published: 2022-12-31 - Modified: 2025-09-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-consulting-age-ai/ - Categories: Leadership For the Big 4, this moment represents not just a challenge but an existential threat. Their traditional models, deeply rooted in hierarchical structures and slow-moving and risk-averse processes, leave them especially vulnerable to the pace of AI-driven change. If these firms cannot embrace AI and adapt quickly enough to meet the demands of a flipped industry—redefining their value proposition, overhauling their delivery models, and rethinking their leadership structures—then perhaps their time has passed. --- > In 2019, Google’s Quantum AI director Hartmut Neven noticed something remarkable: within a matter of months, the computing muscle... - Published: 2022-12-30 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/nevens-law/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Q-Day In 2019, Google’s Quantum AI director Hartmut Neven noticed something remarkable: within a matter of months, the computing muscle of Google’s best quantum processors leapt so quickly that classical machines struggled to keep up. This observation gave birth to “Neven’s Law,” a proposed rule of thumb that quantum computing power is advancing at a doubly exponential rate – far outpacing the steady exponential progress of Moore’s Law. In Neven’s words, with double-exponential growth “it looks like nothing is happening, nothing is happening, and then whoops, suddenly you’re in a different world”. Neven’s Law offers a provocative lens on how fast quantum breakthroughs might arrive and what that means for technology and security. --- > On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H.R.7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act... - Published: 2022-12-23 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-preparedness-act/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States --- > 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - Published: 2022-12-15 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/2022-quantum-threat-timeline-report/ - Categories: Industry News --- > In many ways a traditional IT-focused Security Operations Center (SOC) could not fully address blockchain security monitoring needs - Published: 2022-12-11 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-operations-soc/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > AI-enabled disinformation poses a significant threat to democratic processes, public trust, and social cohesion. While AI can be a potent tool... - Published: 2022-12-06 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/intro-ai-disinformation/ - Categories: AI Security In recent years, the rise of artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized many sectors, bringing about significant advancements in various fields. However, one area where AI has presented a dual-edged sword is in information operations, specifically in the propagation of disinformation. The advent of generative AI, particularly with sophisticated models capable of creating highly realistic text, images, audio, and video, has exponentially increased the risk of deepfakes and other forms of disinformation. --- > The emerging threat of GAN Poisoning casts a shadow over these advancements, presenting a unique set of cybersecurity challenges - Published: 2022-12-01 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gan-poisoning-ai/ - Categories: AI Security GAN Poisoning is a unique form of adversarial attack aimed at manipulating Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) during their training phase; unlike traditional cybersecurity threats like data poisoning or adversarial input attacks, which either corrupt training data or trick already-trained models, GAN Poisoning focuses on altering the GAN's generative capability to produce deceptive or harmful outputs. The objective is not merely unauthorized access but the generation of misleading or damaging information. --- > IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of 2022 - Published: 2022-11-30 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-osprey/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of its 2022 debut. Revealed at the IBM Quantum Summit in November 2022, Osprey more than triples the qubit count of IBM’s previous 127-qubit Eagle chip . IBM says this new processor “brings us a step closer to the point where quantum computers will be used to tackle previously unsolvable problems,” according to Dr. Darío Gil, IBM’s Director of Research . In principle, a state on the 433-qubit Osprey has an information content so enormous that the number of classical bits required to represent it “far exceeds” the total number of atoms in the known universe . While practical quantum applications remain nascent, the Osprey chip’s sheer scale marks a major milestone in the quest to transcend classical computing limits. --- > In the realm of AI, the phenomenon of emergent behaviours has been baffling researchers and practitioners. AI emergent capabilities refer to... - Published: 2022-11-24 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/emergent-behaviors-ai-security/ - Categories: AI Security Emergent behaviours in AI have left both researchers and practitioners scratching their heads. These are the unexpected quirks and functionalities that pop up in complex AI systems, not because they were explicitly trained to exhibit them, but due to the intricate interplay of the system's complexity, the sheer volume of data it sifts through, and its interactions with other systems or variables. It's like giving a child a toy and watching them use it to build a skyscrapper. While scientists hoped that scaling up AI models would enhance their performance on familiar tasks, they were taken aback when these models started acing a number of unfamiliar tasks. --- > Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical... - Published: 2022-11-19 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-distribution/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical means. Distributing entanglement between distant locations is essential for applications such as quantum key distribution (QKD), quantum teleportation, and connecting quantum computers for distributed quantum computing . --- > Open RAN should also reduce cybersecurity risks compared to conventional RAN, but there are a number of risks that are amplified in Open RAN - Published: 2022-11-17 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-security/ - Categories: 5G Security - Tags: Telecommunications --- > In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for smart contracts, leaving the potential for security gaps. - Published: 2022-11-15 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity-smart-contract/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for blockchain security, leaving the potential for security gaps. - Published: 2022-11-15 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-user-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Dynamic Data Masking offers a harmonious blend of security and functionality, making it increasingly relevant in today's complex data - Published: 2022-11-11 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/dynamic-data-masking-ml/ - Categories: AI Security Data masking, also known as data obfuscation or data anonymization, serves as a crucial technique for ensuring data confidentiality and integrity, particularly in non-production environments like development, testing, and analytics. It operates by replacing actual sensitive data with a sanitized version, rendering the data ineffective for malicious exploitation while retaining its functional utility for testing or analysis. --- > Machine learning systems susceptibility to label-flipping attacks exposes a significant blind spot in cybersecurity measures... - Published: 2022-11-10 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/label-flipping-ai/ - Categories: AI Security Label-flipping attacks refer to a class of adversarial attacks that specifically target the labeled data used to train supervised machine learning models. In a typical label-flipping attack, the attacker changes the labels associated with the training data points, essentially turning "cats" into "dogs" or benign network packets into malicious ones, thereby aiming to train the model on incorrect or misleading associations. Unlike traditional adversarial attacks that often focus on manipulating the input features or creating adversarial samples to deceive an already trained model, label-flipping attacks strike at the root of the learning process itself, compromising the integrity of the training data. --- > Toffoli gate gate doesn’t get much fanfare, yet it’s a crucial building block in quantum circuits for cryptanalysis... - Published: 2022-11-09 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/toffoli-gate/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum Understanding the Toffoli gate’s role isn’t just an academic exercise – it has real implications for when and how quantum computers might break our cryptography. Each Toffoli gate isn’t a single physical operation on today’s hardware; it has to be decomposed into the basic operations a quantum machine can do (typically one- and two-qubit gates). In many quantum architectures, a Toffoli might be broken down into a sequence of one-qubit rotations (T gates) and two-qubit CNOTs. Particularly in a fault-tolerant machine (one with error-correcting codes protecting the qubits), non-Clifford gates like T (and by extension Toffoli, which contains T gates in its decomposition) are expensive. They often require a procedure called magic state distillation to implement with low error. So, when we count billions of Toffoli gates, we should remember that each one might consume a chunk of the machine’s bandwidth in terms of error-corrected operations. This is why researchers focus on Toffoli counts – it directly translates to how long the computation runs and how many error-corrected logical operations (especially costly ones) we need. --- > Wave function collapse is the idea that a quantum system, described by a wave function embodying several possible states at once... - Published: 2022-11-04 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/wave-function-collapse/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Wave function collapse is the idea that a quantum system, described by a wave function embodying several possible states at once, suddenly reduces to a single state when observed. In simple terms, before you measure it, a quantum object can be in a superposition of many possibilities; when you measure it, you get one definite outcome. This seemingly abrupt leap from many possibilities to one actuality is what we call wave function collapse. It’s a core concept in quantum mechanics, and it lies at the heart of how quantum computers operate and how reality, at the smallest scales, transitions to the concrete world we experience. --- > Proof of Reserves and Proof of Liabilities can use Merkle trees to prove certain facts while keeping data anonymous... - Published: 2022-11-02 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/proof-reserve-liability-solvency/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for the blockchain, leaving the potential for security gaps. - Published: 2022-11-02 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > The most comprehensive ranked list of the 12 biggest crypto hacks, scams, exploits, vulnerabilities in history - Published: 2022-11-01 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/largest-crypto-hacks/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > In October 2022, Switzerland and the U.S. signed a Joint Statement on Cooperation in Quantum Information Science and Technology - Published: 2022-10-27 - Modified: 2025-09-14 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-us-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Switzerland In October 2022, Switzerland and the U.S. signed a Joint Statement on Cooperation in Quantum Information Science and Technology, pledging to deepen collaboration between the countries’ researchers and institutions. The agreement, signed in Washington D.C. by Switzerland’s State Secretary for Education, Research and Innovation and a U.S. State Department official, outlines plans for joint research projects, exchanges, and sharing of best practices in quantum computing, communications, and sensing. Soon after the signing, Swiss and American experts convened at the first Swiss-US Quantum Days in Chicago to kick-start partnerships. --- > Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat... - Published: 2022-10-26 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cat-qubits-101/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators (e.g. modes of a microwave cavity) that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat superposition. Instead of relying on a single two-level quantum element, a cat qubit stores information in two coherent states of a harmonic oscillator and their quantum superposition. This approach is promising for quantum computing because it inherently protects the qubit from certain errors. In particular, cat qubits can suppress bit-flip errors by encoding 0/1 as two “classical-like” oscillator states that are very different (opposite phases) and thus unlikely to be confused by random noise. This means fewer physical qubits may be needed for error correction: increasing the energy (photon number) of the oscillator makes bit-flips exponentially rare , potentially reducing error-correction overhead by up to an order of magnitude. --- > The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study" - Published: 2022-10-20 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-integration/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe --- > In the realm of machine learning (ML), Backdoor Attacks pose a concealed yet profound security risk that goes beyond traditional cybersecurity - Published: 2022-10-11 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/backdoor-attacks-ml/ - Categories: AI Security Backdoor attacks in the context of Machine Learning (ML) refer to the deliberate manipulation of a model's training data or its algorithmic logic to implant a hidden vulnerability, often referred to as a "trigger." Unlike typical vulnerabilities that are discovered post-deployment, backdoor attacks are often premeditated and planted during the model's development phase. Once deployed, the compromised ML model appears to function normally for standard inputs. However, when the model encounters a specific input pattern corresponding to the embedded trigger, it produces an output that is intentionally skewed or altered, thereby fulfilling the attacker's agenda. --- > $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part. - Published: 2022-10-09 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/binance-hack/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > How a $1B flash loan Led to the $182M Beanstalk Farms decentralized credit-based stablecoin protocol exploit - Published: 2022-10-05 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/beanstalk-farms-exploit/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Many of the supply chain vulnerabilities impacting smart contract security arise from a failure to apply DevSecOps best practices - Published: 2022-10-01 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/smart-contract-security-supply-chain/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > One attacker and hundreds of copycats looted the Nomad bridge for over $190 million; few did the right thing. - Published: 2022-09-27 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/nomad-bridge-hack/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > A ZKP (Zero Knowledge Proof) allows a prover to demonstrate knowledge of some secret without revealing that secret. - Published: 2022-09-26 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/zero-knowledge-proofs-zkp/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > The $611M Poly Network exploit is the largest crypto hack to date in terms of mark-to-market value and all the stolen funds were returned - Published: 2022-09-25 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/poly-network-hack/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Getting to the bottom of the exploit that led to one of the biggest hacks in the history of decentralized finance. - Published: 2022-09-21 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/wintermute-hack/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Securing the blockchain requires considering all layers of the blockchain ecosystem and their security risks and controls. - Published: 2022-09-08 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-layers-security/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > A common misconception is that adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) alone will solve the problem. There are other mitigation approaches... - Published: 2022-09-01 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/mitigating-quantum-threats-pqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The article explores limitations of PQC and explores alternative and complementary approaches to mitigate quantum risks. It provides technical analysis of each strategy, real-world examples of their deployment, and strategic recommendations for decision-makers. The goal is to illuminate why a diversified cryptographic defense – beyond just rolling out new algorithms – is essential to achieve long-term resilience against quantum-enabled adversaries. --- > The field of cryptography is about to become much more dynamic. Which will require organizations to become crypto-agile. What is crypto-agility? - Published: 2022-09-01 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/introduction-crypto-agility/ - Categories: Post-Quantum As we edge closer to the Q-Day—the anticipated moment when quantum computers will be capable of breaking traditional cryptographic systems—the need for crypto-agility becomes increasingly critical. Crypto-agility is the capability of an organization to swiftly and efficiently transition between different cryptographic algorithms and protocols in response to emerging threats and technological advancements. --- > Perturbation Attacks refer to a set of malicious alterations made to the input data of machine learning models, primarily aimed at misleading... - Published: 2022-08-24 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/perturbation-attacks/ - Categories: AI Security Text Classification Models are critical in a number of cybersecurity controls, particularly in mitigating risks associated with phishing emails and spam. However, the emergence of sophisticated perturbation attacks poses substantial threats, manipulating models into erroneous classifications and exposing inherent vulnerabilities. The explored mitigation strategies, including advanced detection techniques and defensive measures like adversarial training and input sanitization, are instrumental in defending against these attacks, preserving model integrity and accuracy. --- > $200M BitMart Hack - A missing pile of Safemoon and other cryptocurrencies, accusations of broken promises, and then nothing. - Published: 2022-08-11 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/bitmart-hack/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > While the multi-faceted nature of multimodal models offers many advantages, it also creates several avenues for potential exploitation... - Published: 2022-08-08 - Modified: 2025-09-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/multimodal-attacks/ - Categories: AI Security In simplest terms, a multimodal model is a type of machine learning algorithm designed to process more than one type of data, be it text, images, audio, or even video. Traditional models often specialize in one form of data; for example, text models focus solely on textual information, while image recognition models zero in on visual data. In contrast, a multimodal model combines these specializations, allowing it to analyze and make predictions based on a diverse range of data inputs. --- > Managing the threat of insecure code on the blockchain requires developers to embrace the DevSecOps and better integrate security. - Published: 2022-08-03 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-devsecops/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part. - Published: 2022-07-30 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/coincheck-hack/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Wallets are a logical target for cyber-attacks, along with the emerging institutions that hold custody of them on users’ behalf. - Published: 2022-07-18 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/crypto-wallet-attacks/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Axie Infinity’s Ronin Bridge Hack for $551M worth of crypto assets could paradoxically lead to higher rates of blockchain adoption - Published: 2022-07-18 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/ronin-bridge-hack/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by... - Published: 2022-07-13 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-cryptography-pqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by a future quantum computer. The motivation for PQC is the threat that large-scale quantum computers pose to current cryptographic systems. Today’s widely used public-key schemes – RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic-curve cryptography – rely on mathematical problems (integer factorization, discrete logarithms, etc.) that could be easily solved by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer running Shor’s algorithm . While current quantum processors are not yet strong enough to break modern crypto , experts anticipate a “Q-Day” when this becomes feasible. PQC algorithms aim to remain secure against both classical and quantum attacks, protecting sensitive data well into the future. --- > Where centralized systems operate on the basis of centralized permission, blockchain protocols proceed on the basis of decentralized consensus - Published: 2022-07-02 - Modified: 2025-09-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-consensus-attacks/ - Categories: Crypto Security --- > Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without... - Published: 2022-06-22 - Modified: 2025-09-04 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-teleportation/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without physically sending the particle itself . Quantum teleportation has become a foundational method in quantum communication, envisioned as a building block for quantum networks and even quantum computing . In essence, it provides a way to transfer quantum information securely and instantaneously (in principle) across distance – with the crucial caveat that a couple of classical bits must be sent, preserving causality. --- ---