# LLMs.txt - Sitemap for AI content discovery # PostQuantum - Quantum Computing, Quantum Security, PQC > Preparing for the Quantum Age --- ## Pages - [Quantum Articles - Switzerland - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-switzerland-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Russia - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-russia-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - India - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-india-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - South Korea - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-south-korea-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Telecommunications - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-telecommunications-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Supply Chain & Logistics - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-logistics-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-pharma-biotech-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Materials & Chemicals - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-materials-chemicals-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Healthcare & Medical Research - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-healthcare-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Government & Defense - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-government-defense-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Finance & Banking - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-finance-banking-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Energy & Utilities - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-energy-utilities-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Aerospace & Automotive - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-aerospace-automotive-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - United States - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-united-states-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - United Kingdom - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-united-kingdom-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Middle East - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-middle-east-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Europe - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-europe-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - China - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-china-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Canada - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-canada-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - Australia - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-australia-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Quantum Articles - ASEAN - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-asean-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Articles by Industry - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/articles-industry-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Articles by Country - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/articles-countries-quantum-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Articles - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/articles-post-quantum/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Industry News - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/industry-news-post-quantum/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Terms and Conditions](https://postquantum.com/terms-and-conditions/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Cookie Policy](https://postquantum.com/cookie-policy/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Privacy Policy](https://postquantum.com/privacy-policy/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [PostQuantum.com - Quantum Computing, Quantum Security](https://postquantum.com/tiehome/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - [Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/marin-ivezic/): Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy - [Marin's Q-Day Predictions (Timeline)](https://postquantum.com/marin-q-day-prediction/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q ## Posts ### Why I Founded Applied Quantum – The First Pure-Play, End-to-End Quantum Consultancy > Applied Quantum is the first and only end-to-end pure-play 100% quantum--focused professional services firm... - Published: 2025-03-17 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/applied-quantum-focused/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Applied Quantum is a firm that for the first time would be 100% dedicated to quantum technology services – not as a sideline, not as one emerging tech practice among many, but as the entire mission of the company, and it would cover the field end-to-end. We founded Applied Quantum to be the first and only end-to-end pure-play quantum professional services firm precisely because generalist consulting firms were not cutting it. Enterprises and governments deserve a partner that lives and breathes quantum every single day. A Personal Journey on the Quantum FrontierThe State of Quantum Computing Today: From Science to EngineeringFilling the Gap: Building a Pure-Play Quantum Services FirmWhy Quantum Readiness Matters (and Why It’s Not a Checkbox)Walking Away from a Big 4 to Pursue the MissionThe Quantum Future Is Coming – Let’s Get ReadyLeaving the comfortable perch of a Big 4 partnership to start a new company is not a decision one makes lightly. Which is why many of you contacted me, confused after my recent announcement. Yet that decision is exactly what I did when I joined Applied Quantum, the first and only end-to-end professional services firm dedicated 100% to quantum computing, quantum tech, quantum security, and quantum readiness. Let me explain. A Personal Journey on the Quantum Frontier My journey with quantum computing began long before “quantum” was a business buzzword. I co-founded a startup called Boston Photonics, aiming to pioneer photonic quantum computing. In hindsight, we were way ahead of the market – an exciting vision launched far too early. While Boston Photonics didn’t become a billion-dollar success, the experience was invaluable. It taught me that timing and practicality are just as crucial as technical vision. Moving on from that early venture, I went back to large consulting firms (IBM, Accenture, Big 4) where I focused on leading cybersecurity, tech risk and emerging tech practices advising (or serving as an interim CISO or CTO) in large enterprises and governments around the world. In each of these roles, quantum computing was a consistent thread – an area I followed closely and championed quietly. I would brief C-suite leaders on quantum breakthroughs, explore potential use cases for our clients, and push internal teams to consider post-quantum security. Quantum remained a passion project of mine, even as I managed broader technology and cyber portfolios.... --- ### How Quantum Could Break Through Amdahl’s Law and Computing’s Limits > A fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get... - Published: 2025-03-15 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-amdahls-law/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Amdahl’s Law teaches us a humbling lesson about the limits of classical computing: there is always a portion that resists parallel speedup, chaining us to diminishing returns. We’ve coped by clever engineering – making that chain as short as possible – but not broken it. Quantum computing offers a bolt cutter for certain chains, freeing us from some of the constraints that have started to stall high-end computing. It fundamentally changes the rules of the game by leveraging physics in ways classical computers cannot. Understanding Amdahl’s Law: The Math of Parallel SpeedupThe Parallelism Bottleneck: Why More Cores Isn’t Always BetterAI and Other Demanding Workloads Under Amdahl’s ShadowPushing the Limits: Specialized Accelerators and Smarter AlgorithmsA Quantum Leap: How Quantum Computing Differs and Dodges Amdahl’s LawQuantum Computing: The Best Hope to Break the Ceiling? Conclusion: Embracing a Future Beyond Classical LimitsModern computing has achieved breathtaking performance gains through parallel processing, from multi-core CPUs to GPU farms crunching AI models. But no matter how many processors we throw at a problem, a fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get. Let's explore why classical computing faces bottlenecks even with massive parallelism. We’ll examine the implications for AI and other high-performance workloads, discuss workarounds like specialized accelerators and better algorithms, and make the case for quantum computing as the ultimate path to transcend these limits. Understanding Amdahl’s Law: The Math of Parallel Speedup Amdahl’s Law is a formula that quantifies the maximum possible improvement in overall performance when only part of a task can be parallelized. Gene Amdahl introduced this idea in 1967, painting a “bleak” picture for unlimited speed-ups: every program has a fraction that must run serially, and once you exceed the available parallel portion, adding more processors yields no further benefit. Mathematically, we can derive Amdahl’s Law as follows: Let T(1) be the execution time of a task on a single processor. Split this into two parts: T_s for the portion that is serial (cannot be parallelized) and T_p for the portion that is parallelizable. So T(1) = T_s + T_p. If we run the task on N processors (idealizing perfect parallelism for the parallel part), the serial part still takes T_s (since it can’t be divided), and the parallel part takes T_p/N (spread evenly across... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in South Korea > South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy... - Published: 2025-03-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-south-korea/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: South Korea Main South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy and increasing investments, Korea is making its mark through cutting-edge research at top universities, substantial government support for quantum computing and communications, and active participation from industry giants and startups alike. The country’s balanced focus – on quantum computing platforms, quantum-safe communications (QKD and PQC), and quantum sensing – reflects a holistic understanding of the quantum revolution’s impact. Technical milestones like multi-qubit photonic chips, large-scale QKD deployment , and novel PQC algorithms showcase Korea’s growing R&D prowess. At the same time, initiatives such as dedicated quantum grad schools and the training of thousands of specialists ensure that human capital will not be a bottleneck. Significantly, South Korea has embedded quantum technology into its broader economic and security policies – treating it as a critical technology for the future, much like semiconductors or AI. This means support for quantum is likely to be sustained across administrations. The new Quantum Promotion Act and the high-level coordination committee provide institutional continuity. Historical Overview of Quantum Research in South KoreaQuantum Computing in South KoreaGovernment-Backed Quantum Initiatives and StrategyAcademic Strength and Research ContributionsPrivate-Sector Quantum DevelopmentsQuantum Cryptography and Secure Communication FocusGeopolitical Position and Competitive OutlookConclusion and OutlookHistorical Overview of Quantum Research in South Korea South Korea’s engagement with quantum technology has evolved from niche academic research in the late 20th century to a coordinated national priority in the 21st. Early efforts in quantum optics and cryptography laid the groundwork, but major milestones began appearing in the 2010s. South Korea’s largest telecom operator, SK Telecom, launched a dedicated Quantum Tech Lab as early as 2011 and commercialized its first quantum key distribution (QKD) device in 2014. By 2019, SK Telecom—together with its Swiss partner ID Quantique—deployed quantum cryptography on a commercial 5G network over 330 km, introducing quantum-secured 5G service for the first time. These industry-led breakthroughs signaled the viability of quantum communications and spurred broader national interest. On the government side, initial support was modest until the late 2010s. Quantum technology was included in South Korea’s Digital New Deal initiative around 2020, which funded pilot QKD networks across public institutions. A turning point came in April 2021 with the announcement of the National Strategic Plan for Quantum Science and Technology, aiming to make Korea a leading quantum country by 2030. This plan dramatically scaled up R&D funding – government investment in quantum tech jumped six-fold from 2018 levels, reaching ~94 billion KRW (≒$75 M) annually by 2023. In 2022, quantum technology was further elevated as one of 12 National Strategic Technologies, recognized as critical for future industry and security. By mid-2023, South Korea enacted a landmark Quantum Science and Technology Promotion Act, establishing a legal framework to boost quantum R&D, industry, and workforce development. This flurry of activity – from early telecom experiments to national... --- ### D-Wave Claims Quantum Supremacy with Quantum Annealing > D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” - Published: 2025-03-13 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-quantum-advantage/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Canada D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” – using its quantum annealing technology on a practical problem. In a peer-reviewed study published in Science on March 12, 2025, D-Wave’s researchers report that their 5,000+ qubit Advantage2 prototype quantum annealer outperformed one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers (Oak Ridge National Lab’s Frontier system) in simulating the quantum dynamics of a complex magnetic material​. The task involved modeling programmable spin glass systems (a type of disordered magnetic material) relevant to materials science. According to D-Wave, their quantum machine found solutions in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer an estimated “nearly one million years” to match, a problem so intensive it would consume more power than the world’s annual energy supply if attempted classically​. D-Wave has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” – using its quantum annealing technology on a practical problem. In a peer-reviewed study published in Science on March 12, 2025, D-Wave’s researchers report that their 5,000+ qubit Advantage2 prototype quantum annealer outperformed one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers (Oak Ridge National Lab’s Frontier system) in simulating the quantum dynamics of a complex magnetic material​. The task involved modeling programmable spin glass systems (a type of disordered magnetic material) relevant to materials science. According to D-Wave, their quantum machine found solutions in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer an estimated “nearly one million years” to match, a problem so intensive it would consume more power than the world’s annual energy supply if attempted classically​. This dramatic speedup – solving in minutes what classical computing might never realistically solve – is being touted as the first-ever quantum advantage on a useful, real-world problem​, distinguishing it from earlier quantum supremacy demonstrations that used abstract math problems or random circuit sampling. D-Wave’s press release emphasizes the practical significance of the result. The simulation of spin glass materials has direct applications in materials discovery, electronics, and medical imaging, making it more than a mere computational stunt​. The company notes that understanding magnetic material behavior at the quantum level is crucial for developing new technologies, and these simulations delivered important material properties that classical methods couldn’t feasibly obtain​. The achievement was enabled by D-Wave’s Advantage2 annealing quantum computer prototype, which offers enhanced performance – including a faster “annealing” schedule, higher qubit connectivity, greater coherence, and an increased energy scale​. These hardware improvements allowed the team to push the annealer into a highly quantum-coherent regime (reducing the effects of noise and thermal fluctuations) and tackle larger, more complex instances... --- ### NIST Picks HQC as New Post-Quantum Encryption Candidate > Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - Published: 2025-03-11 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-hqc-pqc/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing​. What is HQC? Why did NIST select HQC? Implications for Cybersecurity and IndustryWhat Round 4 Means & What’s NextThe U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4 of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) standardization program​. HQC’s advancement is especially interesting because it is the only algorithm from NIST’s 4th round of evaluations to be chosen for standardization​. This move will add a 5th algorithm to NIST’s list of quantum-resistant tools, serving as a backup encryption method alongside the four algorithms already selected in earlier rounds​​. For a more technical analysis of the previously-selected 4 algorithms, see: Inside NIST’s First Post-Quantum Standards: A Technical Exploration of Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+. NIST officials highlighted that HQC is being designated as a “backup” encryption standard rather than a replacement for the primary algorithms finalized last year​. Dustin Moody, a NIST mathematician leading the PQC project, explained that as organizations migrate to post-quantum cryptography, it’s prudent to have an alternative based on different mathematics in case the main algorithm is ever threatened​. “We are announcing the selection of HQC because we want to have a backup standard that is based on a different math approach than ,” Moody said​. In practice, this means HQC will coexist with NIST’s primary encryption standard (known as ML-KEM, derived from the lattice-based CRYSTALS-Kyber algorithm) rather than displace it​​. The intent is to bolster confidence that even as quantum technology advances, there will be more than one line of defense protecting sensitive data. HQC’s selection is the result of NIST’s Round 4, an extra phase in the PQC competition dedicated to evaluating additional encryption algorithms for standardization. At the conclusion of the third round in 2022, NIST had already chosen... --- ### Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC) with Erasure Qubits > Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - Published: 2025-03-06 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/fault-tolerant-erasure-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing​. What Are Erasure Qubits and Why Do They Matter? How Erasure Qubits Improve Quantum Error CorrectionThe Proposed Fault-Tolerant Architecture (Using Floquet Codes)Impact on Quantum ComputingCybersecurity ImplicationsPotential Future DirectionsThe steady flow of interesting quantum computing announcements continues today, with an intriguing new paper. Researchers have unveiled a novel quantum computing architecture that uses “erasure qubits” to dramatically improve error correction, potentially cutting the cost of building reliable quantum computers. In a new study, Shouzhen Gu, Alex Retzker, and Aleksander Kubica propose a hardware-efficient way to make quantum bits that can signal when they fail, turning random errors into easier-to-handle erasures​. This approach addresses one of quantum computing’s biggest challenges – the huge overhead of error correction – by allowing the system to know exactly where an error occurred and correct it more efficiently​. The team’s fault-tolerant architecture, tailored for superconducting quantum circuits, shows that with a bit more complexity in each qubit, one can achieve significantly better error protection than standard methods​. The result is a blueprint for quantum processors that could require far fewer qubits to do the same reliable computations, bringing practical quantum machines closer to reality​. What Are Erasure Qubits and Why Do They Matter? In conventional quantum bits (qubits), errors like bit-flips or phase-flips strike without warning – the qubit’s state might change silently, and detecting these errors requires intricate protocols. An erasure qubit is different. It’s engineered so that its most likely failure mode is a detectable erasure – essentially the qubit disappears or moves to a known “lost” state that raises a red flag. In other words, when an erasure qubit suffers an error, you know it happened and which qubit was hit, as opposed to mysterious flips that go unnoticed​. This built-in error detection is powerful because it converts unpredictable errors into predictable, locatable... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in the Middle East > Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - Published: 2025-03-06 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-middle-east/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Middle East Main Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI. The Middle East is determined not to miss out on the quantum revolution, and that determination is reshaping the tech narrative of this region. What’s behind this quantum push in the Middle East? Two key factors stand out: wealth from natural resources and a need to diversify economies, coupled with relative political stability. Gulf nations have long relied on oil and gas – and now they’re investing those petrodollars into technology to pivot away from hydrocarbon-dependent GDP. This access to capital, plus stable governments that can plan for the long term, forms the backbone of their quantum ambitions. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qatar are prime examples: each has strategic national visions (like Saudi’s Vision 2030 and the UAE’s Centennial 2071 plan) that highlight innovation and knowledge economies, giving quantum tech a supportive policy environment. Introduction: Returning to an Innovative Middle EastTwo Different Worlds in the Middle EastMiddle East Driving Factors for Quantum AdoptionThe UAE’s Quantum Computing EffortsSaudi Arabia’s Quantum Ambitions (“The Kingdom’s” Role)Qatar’s Quantum InvolvementTurkey’s Quantum Computing StrategyQuantum Startup Ecosystem: Nascent but GrowingConclusion: A Personal Outlook on the Quantum Middle EastIntroduction: Returning to an Innovative Middle East It’s been about 1. 5 years since I returned to the Middle East – a region I first worked in back in 2006-2008. Coming back after over a decade, I’m struck by how the tech landscape has transformed. The Middle East is now, in my view, one of the most exciting regions for emerging technologies. Industry leaders seem to agree – for instance, IonQ’s CEO Peter Chapman noted that while regional investment in quantum and AI started smaller than in the West, it’s rapidly growing with a focused approach on high-impact sectors like energy, finance, and life sciences. This concentrated effort means the GCC countries are aiming to leapfrog into leadership positions in areas like artificial intelligence and quantum computing. Or even the combination of the two - Quantum AI. Indeed, one of the most striking observations I had since returning to the Middle East is that discussions around Quantum AI extend beyond academia into active commercial discussions. Companies here see Quantum AI as a potential long-term strategic investment—a pathway to leapfrogging into global tech leadership—even though tangible benefits might still be years away. Elsewhere, it’s often dismissed as an academic curiosity due to uncertain short-term returns. As a techno-optimist, this forward-thinking approach leaves me confident that the region is positioning itself for future success. My own career journey mirrors this regional shift. I went from working at a Big 4 consultancy to leading specialized quantum technology research and consulting teams at Applied Quantum and Secure Quantum.... --- ### The Race Toward FTQC: Ocelot, Majorana, Willow, Heron, Zuchongzhi > Race to fault-tolerant quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses... - Published: 2025-03-05 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fault-tolerant-quantum-race/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses—Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft, Google, IBM, and Zuchongzhi—all in the last 4 months. Are these just hype-fueled announcements, or do they mark real progress toward useful, large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computing—and perhaps signal an accelerated timeline for “Q-Day”? Personally, I'm bullish about these announcements. Each of these reveals a different and interesting strategy for tackling the field’s biggest challenge: quantum error correction. The combined innovation pushes the file forward in a big way. But let's dig into some details. IntroductionBreakdown of Each AnnouncementAWS Ocelot: Bosonic Cat Qubits and Built-In Error CorrectionMicrosoft’s Majorana 1: Topological Qubits and the Quest for Stable QubitsGoogle Willow: A 105-Qubit Transmon Processor Achieving Error-Correction ThresholdsIBM Heron R2: Tunable-Coupler Architecture and Enhanced Quantum VolumeZuchongzhi 3. 0: China’s Breakthrough in Superconducting Quantum HardwareExpanded Technical ComparisonQubit Type and ArchitectureAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Qubit Types and ArchitecturesCoherence Times (T1 and T2)AWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Coherence TimesError Rates and Error Correction TechniquesAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Error Rates and Error Correction TechniquesBenchmarking and Performance MetricsQuantum VolumeIBM Heron R2Google Willow and USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0AWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1CLOPS (Circuit Layer Operations Per Second)IBM Heron R2Google WillowUSTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0AWS Ocelot and Microsoft Majorana-1Quantum Advantage / Computational Task BenchmarksGoogle WillowUSTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0IBM Heron R2AWS Ocelot and Microsoft Majorana-1Other BenchmarksCircuit fidelity at scaleSummary of Benchmarking and Performance MetricsGate Fidelity and SpeedAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Relevant InnovationsSummary of Gate Fidelity and SpeedScalability and IntegrationAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Scalability and IntegrationComputational Capabilities and Use CasesAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Computational Capabilities and Use CasesImplications for Q-DayPredictions and Future OutlookTimeline to Quantum AdvantagePractical error correctionScale of devicesFault tolerance by the early 2030sConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses—Zuchongzhi, Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft, Google, and IBM—all in the last 4 months.  Are these just hype-fueled announcements, or do they mark real progress toward useful, large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computing—and perhaps signal an accelerated timeline for “Q-Day”? Personally, I'm bullish about these announcements. Each of these reveals a different and interesting strategy for tackling the field’s biggest challenge: quantum error correction. The combined innovation pushes the... --- ### Zuchongzhi 3.0 Quantum Chip: Technical Analysis and Implications > China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor - Published: 2025-03-04 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-3-0-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor with 105 qubits, marking a major leap in quantum computing performance. Announced in March 2025 by a University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) team led by Pan Jianwei, Zhu Xiaobo, and Peng Chengzhi, this prototype boasts unprecedented processing speed – reportedly quadrillion ($10^15$) times faster than today’s best supercomputer and about one million times faster than Google’s latest quantum chip results announced just a few months ago. Technical Advancements of Zuchongzhi 3. 0Architecture and Qubit DesignQubit Count and Fidelity ImprovementsUnique FeaturesPerformance Claims and BenchmarkingQuantum Advantage DemonstrationValidity of Claims and Benchmark MethodsGeopolitical Implications and Tech Race DynamicsNational Strategies and InvestmentTechno-Strategic ImpactComparison with Other Leading Quantum ProcessorsMathematical and Scientific InsightsRandom Circuit Sampling ComplexityError Rates and Quantum Error CorrectionEntanglement and 2D ConnectivityCybersecurity ImplicationsOutlookChina’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3. 0, a new superconducting quantum processor with 105 qubits, marking a major leap in quantum computing performance. Announced in March 2025 by a University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) team led by Pan Jianwei, Zhu Xiaobo, and Peng Chengzhi, this prototype claims to have achieved unprecedented processing speed – reportedly quadrillion (1015) times faster than today’s best supercomputer and about one million times faster than Google’s latest quantum chip results announced just a few months ago. More on this benchmark later. Let's dig into the announcement and the accompanying paper: Establishing a New Benchmark in Quantum Computational Advantage with 105-qubit Zuchongzhi 3. 0 Processor. Technical Advancements of Zuchongzhi 3. 0 Architecture and Qubit Design Zuchongzhi 3. 0 is a 105-qubit superconducting processor fabricated with a two-dimensional grid (rectangular lattice) architecture. The qubits are coupled via a dense network of 182 tunable couplers, enabling flexible two-qubit interactions across the chip. This 2D layout (with an average connectivity of ~3. 5 neighboring qubits per qubit) maximizes entanglement opportunities while mitigating signal cross-talk. The chip adopts a “flip-chip” integration technique, where two chips are bonded face-to-face, achieving high-density interconnects with minimal signal loss. This innovation, along with a sapphire substrate and improved circuit materials (tantalum-aluminum), significantly reduces electromagnetic noise and enhances thermal stability. The result is an extended qubit coherence: Zuchongzhi 3. 0’s qubits have an average energy-relaxation (T₁) time of ~72 µs (and dephasing T₂ ~58... --- ### Quantum Geopolitics: The Global Race for Quantum Computing > Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications... - Published: 2025-03-01 - Modified: 2025-03-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-geopolitics/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Geopolitics Quantum computing has emerged as a new frontier of great-power competition in the 21st century​. Nations around the world view advanced quantum technologies as strategic assets—keys to future economic prowess, military strength, and technological sovereignty. Governments have already poured over $40 billion into quantum research and development globally​, launching national initiatives and international collaborations to secure a lead in this critical domain. The Strategic Importance of Quantum Computing in GeopoliticsCryptography and National SecurityEconomic Competitiveness and Technological LeadershipMilitary and Defense ApplicationsScientific Prestige and Technological SovereigntyUnited States: A Private-Sector-Driven ApproachChina: A State-Funded Quantum LeapEuropean Union: Collaborative Efforts and Regulatory VisionUnited Kingdom: Early Investment and Ongoing LeadershipIndia: Emerging Aspirant in Quantum TechnologyRussia: Strategic Interest Amid ChallengesTechnological Sovereignty in Quantum ComputingGeopolitical Risks of a Quantum Computing Gap (“Q-Day” Ahead)Intelligence and National Security UpheavalStrategic Instability and Arms Race DynamicsErosion of Privacy, Commerce, and Public TrustTechnological Hegemony and DependencyGlobal Tensions and Alliances ShiftsRegulation, Collaboration, and Security in the Quantum EraExport Controls and Protective RegulationsCybersecurity Standards – Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)International Collaboration and TreatiesNational Security MeasuresEthical and Equity ConsiderationsBalancing Collaboration with CompetitionConclusionQuantum computing has emerged as a new frontier of great-power competition in the 21st century​. Nations around the world view advanced quantum technologies as strategic assets—keys to future economic prowess, military strength, and technological sovereignty. Governments have already poured over $40 billion into quantum research and development globally​, launching national initiatives and international collaborations to secure a lead in this critical domain. In this article I will try to summarize, at a very high-level, the approaches of all key jurisdictions with an emphasis on the United States, China, and the European Union, as well as other important players like the United Kingdom, India, and Russia. The Strategic Importance of Quantum Computing in Geopolitics Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications. Its strategic importance can be understood in several key areas. Cryptography and National Security Quantum computers at scale could break today’s encryption standards, endangering the security of communications and data worldwide. Modern digital infrastructure—from military communications to banking and e-commerce—relies on encryption that quantum algorithms (like Shor’s) might eventually crack. The prospect of a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (“CRQC”) attaining... --- ### AWS Announces Ocelot Chip for Ultra-Reliable Qubits > Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone... - Published: 2025-02-28 - Modified: 2025-03-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/aws-ocelot-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone in the company’s quantum ambitions. Announced on February 27, 2025, Ocelot is a prototype processor designed from the ground up to tackle quantum error correction in a more resource-efficient way. AWS claims the new chip can reduce the overhead (and thus cost) of error correction by up to 90% compared to current methods. Developed at the AWS Center for Quantum Computing (on Caltech’s campus), Ocelot is described as a breakthrough toward building fault-tolerant quantum computers – machines that could one day solve problems “beyond the reach” of today’s classical supercomputers. This announcement positions AWS alongside other tech giants in the race for quantum computing, but with a distinct focus on error-corrected quantum hardware from the outset. Technical Breakdown of OcelotQubit TechnologyError Suppression and QEC ArchitectureComparison with Other Quantum ChipsAWS’s Broader Quantum StrategyIndustry Comparisons and Competitive LandscapeCryptographic and Security ImplicationsFuture Outlook and ChallengesAmazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone in the company’s quantum ambitions. Announced on February 27, 2025, Ocelot is a prototype processor designed from the ground up to tackle quantum error correction in a more resource-efficient way. AWS claims the new chip can reduce the overhead (and thus cost) of error correction by up to 90% compared to current methods. Developed at the AWS Center for Quantum Computing (on Caltech’s campus), Ocelot is described as a breakthrough toward building fault-tolerant quantum computers – machines that could one day solve problems “beyond the reach” of today’s classical supercomputers. This announcement positions AWS alongside other tech giants in the race for quantum computing, but with a distinct focus on error-corrected quantum hardware from the outset. AWS’s Director of Quantum Hardware, Oskar Painter, emphasized that with recent advances, “it is no longer a matter of if, but when” practical quantum computers arrive, calling Ocelot “an important step on that journey. ” He noted that chips built on Ocelot’s architecture could be produced at roughly one-fifth the cost of current approaches, potentially accelerating AWS’s timeline to a practical quantum computer by up to five years. Ocelot’s debut is especially significant given AWS’s broader quantum computing strategy to date. Until now, AWS’s public quantum efforts have centered on Amazon Braket, a cloud service launched in 2019 that lets users experiment with quantum algorithms on third-party quantum hardware. Through Braket, researchers can access a range of quantum technologies (from superconducting qubits to ion traps and photonic devices) provided by AWS partners. In other words, AWS has so far acted as... --- ### AI and Quantum Sensing: A Perfect Synergy > AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest... - Published: 2025-02-28 - Modified: 2025-03-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ai-quantum-sensing/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest scales; AI provides the means to interpret and act on that data in real time. This synergy is already evident in cutting-edge projects – from AI algorithms cleaning up quantum microscope images to autonomous navigation systems using quantum sensors plus AI to chart their course . As both technologies mature, their convergence will enable a new class of applications that neither could achieve alone. The marriage of artificial intelligence and quantum sensing is a natural synergy – each amplifies the other’s strengths. Quantum sensors can flood us with high-precision data about the world, but making sense of that data isn’t trivial. The signals are often high-dimensional, noisy, and complex, reflecting the subtlety of quantum-level phenomena. This is where AI steps in. Advanced algorithms (machine learning, neural networks, deep analytics) excel at finding patterns in vast data and extracting meaningful information. By pairing AI with quantum sensing, we ensure that we don’t just collect quantum data – we understand it and act on it. In fact, AI is becoming essential for handling quantum sensor outputs. While a quantum magnetometer or gravimeter might detect tiny fluctuations, interpreting what those fluctuations mean (a hidden tumor? a submarine? a new physics signal? ) can be like finding a needle in a haystack. AI can be trained to recognize the subtle fingerprints of true signals amid background noise. Below are several ways AI supercharges quantum sensing, along with the exciting prospects this synergy unlocks: Intelligent Noise Reduction Quantum sensors are so sensitive that they pick up everything – including unwanted environmental noise (stray magnetic fields, vibrations, temperature drifts). Traditionally, we had to build elaborate shielding or operate in isolated labs to reduce interference. AI offers a smarter solution: noise mitigation algorithms can learn the difference between a sensor’s target signal and noise, and filter the noise out in real time. For example, AI models have been used to clean up MRI images enhanced by quantum sensors, removing artifacts that would normally require a shielded room. SandboxAQ (an Alphabet spinoff) reports using AI to distinguish the useful magnetic signals of the human heart from background electromagnetic noise, instead of relying solely on cumbersome shielding. By digitally “hushing” the noise, we... --- ### Quantum Use Cases in Telecom > Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we operate networks - Published: 2025-02-27 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-telecom/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Telecommunications Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we secure and operate networks, enabling levels of performance and protection previously unattainable​. At the same time, it forces a reckoning with the vulnerabilities of our current systems. The journey to fully realize quantum-enhanced telecom will involve overcoming technical challenges and managing risks, but the destination – a world with fundamentally secure, high-capacity communications and perhaps even a quantum internet spanning continents – is one of extraordinary promise. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Cryptography & Secure CommunicationsQuantum Networking & the Quantum InternetOptimization of Telecom InfrastructureError Correction & Signal ProcessingSpectrum Allocation & RF Signal OptimizationPost-Quantum CryptographyThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is an emerging technology that leverages quantum physics to process information in profoundly new ways. Unlike classical bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum bits (qubits) can exist in superpositions of states, allowing quantum algorithms to evaluate many possibilities simultaneously​. This can translate into exponential speed-ups for certain computations, providing vast new computational power. Telecommunications networks – increasingly complex with the advent of 5G and soon 6G – stand to benefit greatly from this power. Today’s mobile networks already run massively distributed, compute-intensive applications from the core cloud to the edge​. Meeting future network demands will require significant advances in computing and AI; quantum computers are expected to surpass classical computers for specific problem types relevant to telecom​. In essence, quantum computing could become a key tool to plan, control, and optimize communication networks beyond what current technology allows. At the same time, quantum computing poses an unprecedented security challenge. Powerful quantum machines will be capable of cracking the encryption algorithms that currently protect telecom data and transactions in a feasible timeframe​. Data that would take classical supercomputers trillions of years to decrypt might take a large quantum computer mere months​. This looming capability has raised alarms in the telecom industry, which handles mountains of sensitive information. As discussed later, telecom providers are racing to adopt quantum-safe encryption to defend against this threat. In short, quantum computing matters for telecommunications both as a transformative opportunity and as a disruptive threat​. The sections below explore how quantum technologies are already impacting global telecommunications and what lies on the horizon. Current Developments Research... --- ### Microsoft’s Majorana-Based Quantum Chip - Beyond the Hype > In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design... - Published: 2025-02-23 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana-1-hype/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design leveraging exotic Majorana quasiparticles. This chip uses a new material called a “topoconductor” (a specially engineered topological superconductor) made from indium arsenide and aluminum, which can host and control Majorana zero modes (MZMs) to serve as qubits. Microsoft’s announcement framed this as a paradigm shift akin to inventing the “transistor for the quantum age,” claiming that the Majorana 1 chip’s “Topological Core” could eventually scale to one million qubits on a single, palm-sized chip. The Majorana 1 Announcement and ContextTechnical Achievements: Creating and Measuring a Topological QubitBreakthrough or Preliminary Step? Implications for Microsoft’s Quantum StrategyCredibility of the Research and the 2018 RetractionHype vs Reality: Are the Claims Overblown? Expert and Community PerspectivesThe Majorana 1 Announcement and Context Seattle, WA, USA (Feb 2025) – Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design leveraging exotic Majorana quasiparticles. This chip uses a new material called a “topoconductor” (a specially engineered topological superconductor) made from indium arsenide and aluminum, which can host and control Majorana zero modes (MZMs) to serve as qubits. For more about the Majorana quantum computing paradigm, see: Quantum Computing Paradigms and Architectures: Majorana Qubits 101. Microsoft’s announcement framed this as a paradigm shift akin to inventing the “transistor for the quantum age,” claiming that the Majorana 1 chip’s “Topological Core” could eventually scale to one million qubits on a single, palm-sized chip. The company boldly stated that this approach will enable quantum computers capable of solving impactful, industrial-scale problems “in years, not decades,” emphasizing a clear path toward a fault-tolerant machine with unprecedented scale. The reveal coincided with a paper in Nature by Microsoft’s Azure Quantum researchers (160+ authors) describing the device’s properties, as well as a roadmap preprint outlining how they plan to scale this technology into a fully functional topological quantum computer. Many scientists, rather than following the media hype, dug into the accompanying Nature paper and came away with a much different impression. The peer-reviewed paper describes a foundational experiment or “test harness” for Majorana zero modes, rather than a demonstrable quantum computing chip. In other words, the paper outlines an experimental device that might one day enable Majorana-based qubits, not a functioning topological quantum processor achieved today. This gap between... --- ### Quantum Use Cases in Healthcare & Medical Research > Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point... - Published: 2025-01-16 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-healthcare/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Healthcare & Medical Research Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point, we can see glimmers of its future impact: prototype quantum algorithms already accelerating drug discovery, early collaborations bringing quantum hardware into hospital research labs, and quantum-inspired methods optimizing healthcare operations in ways that improve patient care. As the technology evolves from today’s nascent systems to tomorrow’s fault-tolerant quantum computers, the scale of disruption and advancement will only grow. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesMedical Imaging & DiagnosticsHospital & Healthcare Systems OptimizationPersonalized Treatment PlansMedical Robotics & Surgical PlanningEpidemiology & Public Health --- ### Russia Unveils First 50-Qubit Quantum Computer Prototype > Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - Published: 2024-12-30 - Modified: 2025-03-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/russia-50-qubit-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Russia Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing​. Moscow, Russia (Dec 2024) – Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap in its national quantum program​. Researchers at Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) and the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) developed the 50-qubit device using neutral rubidium atoms as quantum bits​. The prototype was successfully tested on December 19, 2024, just in time to meet a government-backed 2020 roadmap goal of building a 50-qubit system by end of 2024​. This accomplishment positions Russia among a select group of nations with quantum processors at the 50-qubit scale, a benchmark long pursued in the global race for quantum computing capabilities​. According to the MSU Quantum Technologies Center, the new quantum computer operates by trapping individual rubidium atoms with “optical tweezers” – tightly focused laser beams that hold and manipulate the atoms in place​. The apparatus spans a large optical table packed with a laser array for cooling and controlling atomic states and an ultra-high vacuum chamber to isolate the atoms from environmental interference​. In the prototype’s current setup, 50 single atoms are arranged in an ordered array, forming a quantum register on which single-qubit operations can be performed​. “Neutral atoms in optical tweezers are a good system in terms of scaling prospects. We more or less understand how to get from systems of tens of qubits to hundreds and even thousands,” said Stanislav Straupe, head of the quantum computing sector at MSU, underscoring the design’s potential for expansion​. The project is part of Russia’s national Quantum Computing Roadmap coordinated by the state corporation Rosatom and backed by roughly $790 million in government funding​. It follows on the heels of a 20-qubit ion-trap quantum computer demonstrated in early 2024, which itself built on a 16-qubit system showcased to President Vladimir Putin in... --- ### China’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives > For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope... - Published: 2024-12-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: China Main For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope of what’s possible. In an optimistic view, this competition can accelerate discoveries that benefit all humankind – better medicines from quantum simulations, safer communications, more precise navigation and timing for everyone. Introduction: A Personal Perspective on China’s Quantum PushHistorical Context: From Early Efforts to National PriorityQuantum Computing: China’s Current AdvancementsQuantum Communications and Cryptography: Unhackable Networks at ScaleSpace: The Micius Satellite and Global QKD LinksGround: Terrestrial Quantum Fiber NetworksQuantum Cryptography and BeyondQuantum Sensing: Developing the Next-Generation SensorsGeopolitical Implications: The Quantum Great GameConclusion and Outlook: The Road Ahead for China’s Quantum QuestIntroduction: A Personal Perspective on China’s Quantum Push I still remember the hum of the laboratory in Hefei on humid summer nights. I spent a number of years living and working in China, immersed in advanced and emerging technologies. Including a slew of quantum technologies. As I was researching the quantum threat, in my, at the time cybersecurity-focused role, I got to talk with brilliant Chinese scientists in Anhui’s capital – a city now nicknamed “Quantum Avenue” for its cluster of quantum startups. I witnessed firsthand the deep talent pool and relentless commitment of China’s quantum researchers. Graduate students would work past midnight, aligning lasers for quantum optics experiments or tweaking code for quantum algorithms. The atmosphere was electric with ambition; many believed they were pioneers of a coming technological revolution. Those experiences left an indelible impression. Even after leaving the region, I’ve stayed in touch with former colleagues in China. Through late-night messages and research updates, I’ve tracked China’s astounding progress in quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. What follows is both a personal account and an online analysis of China’s quantum technology initiatives – blending my on-the-ground observations with documented facts. Historical Context: From Early Efforts to National Priority China’s serious foray into quantum research began in the late 20th century and accelerated rapidly in the 21st. In the 1980s and 1990s, a few visionary scientists, such as Prof. Guo Guangcan, started laying groundwork in quantum information science. By 2001,... --- ### Quantum Technology Initiatives in Singapore and ASEAN > ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s... - Published: 2024-12-27 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-singapore-asean/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: ASEAN Main ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s – the National Research Foundation began funding quantum research as early as 2002, and by 2007 the government helped establish the Centre for Quantum Technologies (CQT) at the National University of Singapore. CQT was a milestone for the region, bringing together physicists, computer scientists, and engineers to explore quantum physics and build prototype quantum devices. Over the subsequent decade, CQT’s researchers published around 2,000 scientific papers and trained more than 60 PhD students, seeding a generation of quantum scientists in Southeast Asia. This early start positioned Singapore as the region’s quantum research hub. Other ASEAN members followed in the 2010s: research groups and academic programs in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia began exploring quantum information science, albeit on a smaller scale. Historical Context of Quantum Research in ASEANQuantum Computing Advancements in ASEANGovernment Strategies and National InitiativesLeading Research Institutions and ProgramsPrivate-Sector Developments and Industry PartnershipsQuantum Communications and Cryptography in ASEANQuantum Sensing and Metrology Developments in ASEANASEAN’s Global Position in Quantum TechnologySingapore’s Role as ASEAN’s Quantum Hub and the Regional EcosystemThe Emerging Quantum Ecosystem Across Southeast AsiaConclusion and Forward OutlookHistorical Context of Quantum Research in ASEAN ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s – the National Research Foundation began funding quantum research as early as 2002, and by 2007 the government helped establish the Centre for Quantum Technologies (CQT) at the National University of Singapore. CQT was a milestone for the region, bringing together physicists, computer scientists, and engineers to explore quantum physics and build prototype quantum devices. Over the subsequent decade, CQT’s researchers published around 2,000 scientific papers and trained more than 60 PhD students, seeding a generation of quantum scientists in Southeast Asia. This early start positioned Singapore as the region’s quantum research hub. Other ASEAN members followed in the 2010s: research groups and academic programs in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia began exploring quantum information science, albeit on a smaller scale. For example, Malaysian researchers formed the Malaysia Quantum Information Initiative (MyQI) community to raise awareness and collaborate nationally, while in Thailand a Quantum Technology Roadmap 2020–2029 was drawn up to guide R&D in quantum computing, communications, and sensing. By the early 2020s, these foundational efforts coalesced into national initiatives, signaling ASEAN’s intent to catch the “second quantum revolution. ” In 2022, Indonesia’s government created a dedicated Research Center for Quantum Physics under its National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), aiming to build local expertise in fundamental quantum science and future technologies. And in 2024, Malaysia launched its... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Russia > Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - Published: 2024-12-26 - Modified: 2025-03-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-russia/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Russia Main Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI. The Middle East is determined not to miss out on the quantum revolution, and that determination is reshaping the tech narrative of this region. What’s behind this quantum push in the Middle East? Two key factors stand out: wealth from natural resources and a need to diversify economies, coupled with relative political stability. Gulf nations have long relied on oil and gas – and now they’re investing those petrodollars into technology to pivot away from hydrocarbon-dependent GDP. This access to capital, plus stable governments that can plan for the long term, forms the backbone of their quantum ambitions. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qatar are prime examples: each has strategic national visions (like Saudi’s Vision 2030 and the UAE’s Centennial 2071 plan) that highlight innovation and knowledge economies, giving quantum tech a supportive policy environment. Historical Context of Russia’s Quantum ResearchQuantum Computing: Current State and AdvancementsGovernment Initiatives and National Quantum ProgramLeading Research Institutions and CollaboratorsPrivate Sector and Startup DevelopmentsQuantum Communications and CryptographyQuantum Key Distribution NetworksQuantum Cryptography and Security EffortsQuantum Sensing and Metrology DevelopmentsRussia’s Global Position in Quantum TechnologyOutlookHistorical Context of Russia’s Quantum Research Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics and early quantum experiments. This legacy endures in the modern era – Russian experts often note that the “Soviet school of quantum physics was one of the best in the world,” providing a deep talent pool for today’s initiatives. In the 2010s, Russia began explicitly organizing its quantum research efforts. A key milestone was the establishment of the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) in 2010 at the Skolkovo innovation hub as a private research institution focused on fundamental and applied quantum physics. RQC quickly garnered support, securing over 2 billion rubles (~€30 million) in funding from competitive grants and private investors like Gazprombank. This signaled a public-private interest in keeping pace with the “second quantum revolution. ” Soon after, regional centers emerged (e. g. a quantum center in Kazan in 2014) and Russian universities expanded quantum research programs. By the late 2010s, the government elevated quantum technology as a strategic priority. Quantum tech was included among the “strategically important cross-cutting directions” of national programs such as the National Technology Initiative (NTI) and the Digital Economy National Program. In 2017–2018, two specialized NTI centers were created: the Quantum Technology Center at Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) and an NTI Center for Quantum Communications at the National University of Science and Technology MISiS. Each received roughly 2 billion rubles (~€30 million) over five years from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education and the Russian Venture Company, aimed at building... --- ### Google Announces Willow Quantum Chip > Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing... - Published: 2024-12-11 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-willow-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing. The 105-qubit Willow chip demonstrates two breakthroughs that have long eluded researchers: it dramatically reduces error rates as qubit count scales up, and it completed a computational task in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer longer than the age of the universe. These achievements suggest Google’s quantum hardware is edging closer to the threshold of useful quantum advantage, paving the way for large-scale systems that could outperform classical computers on real-world problems. Pushing Quantum Performance to New HeightsUnder the Hood of Willow’s DesignGoogle vs. IBM, and the Quantum CompetitionScaling Up: Challenges on the Road to Quantum UtilityWhy Willow Matters: Toward Quantum-Powered Industry and ScienceSanta Barbara, CA, USA (Dec 2024) – Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing. The 105-qubit Willow chip demonstrates two breakthroughs that have long eluded researchers: it dramatically reduces error rates as qubit count scales up, and it completed a computational task in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer longer than the age of the universe. These achievements suggest Google’s quantum hardware is edging closer to the threshold of useful quantum advantage, paving the way for large-scale systems that could outperform classical computers on real-world problems. Pushing Quantum Performance to New Heights Google’s Quantum AI team built Willow as the successor to its 2019 Sycamore chip, roughly doubling the qubit count from 53 to 105 while vastly improving qubit quality. Crucially, Willow’s design isn’t just about adding more qubits – it’s about better qubits. In quantum computing, more qubits mean nothing if they’re too error-prone. Willow tackles this with engineering refinements that boost qubit coherence times to ~100 microseconds, about 5× longer than Sycamore’s 20 μs. That stability, combined with an average qubit connectivity of 3. 47 in a 2D grid, gives Willow “best-in-class” performance on holistic benchmarks like quantum error correction and random circuit sampling. In a standard benchmark test known as Random Circuit Sampling (RCS), Willow proved its mettle. It churned through a complex random circuit in under five minutes – an instance so computationally hard that today’s fastest classical supercomputer would need an estimated 10 septillion ($$10^{25}$$) years to do the same. This isn’t just a parlor trick; it’s a strong indicator that... --- ### Quantum Computing Benchmarks: RCS, QV, AQ, and More > Researchers have developed specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance... - Published: 2024-11-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-benchmarks/ - Categories: Quantum Computing As quantum computing hardware rapidly improves, simple metrics like qubit count are no longer sufficient to gauge a system’s true capability. Unlike classical computers where transistor counts roughly correlate with performance, quantum bits (qubits) can be error-prone and short-lived, so a few high-fidelity qubits can be more valuable than many noisy ones. This has led researchers to develop specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance – from the ability to perform classically intractable tasks to the effective computational power and reliability of a device. IntroductionRandom Circuit Sampling (RCS) and Quantum SupremacyWhat does RCS measure and why is it important? Strengths and weaknessesQuantum Volume (QV)Mathematical framework and methodologyWhat does QV measure and why is it important? Strengths and use casesWeaknesses and criticismsAlgorithmic Qubits (AQ)What #AQ measuresMethodology and mathematical basisStrengths and ideal use casesWeaknesses and controversyOther Benchmarking MethodologiesRandomized Benchmarking (RB) – Gate Error RatesCross-Entropy (XEB) vs. Other Fidelity BenchmarksThroughput and Speed: CLOPS and rQOPSCLOPS (Circuit Layer Operations Per Second)rQOPS (Reliable Quantum Operations Per Second)Volumetric & Application-Specific BenchmarksConclusionIntroduction As quantum computing hardware rapidly improves, simple metrics like qubit count are no longer sufficient to gauge a system’s true capability. Unlike classical computers where transistor counts roughly correlate with performance, quantum bits (qubits) can be error-prone and short-lived, so a few high-fidelity qubits can be more valuable than many noisy ones. This has led researchers to develop specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance – from the ability to perform classically intractable tasks to the effective computational power and reliability of a device. IBM, for example, categorizes quantum performance along three dimensions: Scale (number of qubits), Quality (measured by Quantum Volume), and Speed (measured by CLOPS, circuit layer operations per second). These metrics, provide a more holistic yardstick for progress than raw qubit counts. The industry has developed a number of quantum benchmarks. Let's look at the few leading ones. Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) and Quantum Supremacy One of the most headline-grabbing benchmarks in quantum computing is Random Circuit Sampling (RCS), which underpins demonstrations of quantum supremacy (or “quantum advantage”). RCS involves running a quantum computer on a suite of random circuits and checking how well the output distribution matches what quantum mechanics predicts. The idea was first formalized by Boixo et al. (2018) as a way to “Characterize quantum supremacy in near-term devices”. In... --- ### Adiabatic Quantum (AQC) and Cyber (2024 Update) > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem... - Published: 2024-11-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-annealing-cyber/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing - Tags: popular Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem. Instead of discrete gate operations, AQC involves slowly evolving a quantum system’s Hamiltonian such that it remains in its lowest-energy (ground) state, effectively “computing” the solution as the system’s final state​. AQC and its practical subset known as quantum annealing are particularly geared toward solving optimization problems by finding minima of cost functions. IntroductionIn-Depth Explanation of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)Comparison with Gate-Based and Universal Quantum ComputingFundamental Differences in ApproachUniversalityAdvantages of AQCDisadvantages of AQCHow AQC aligns or diverges from universal quantum computationQuantum Annealing vs. Universal Adiabatic Quantum ComputingQuantum Annealing (QA)Universal AQCKey DifferencesQuantum Annealing in practice vs theoryCybersecurity Impact of Adiabatic Quantum ComputingHow AQC Could Break CryptographyBreaking Public-Key Encryption (RSA, ECC)Discrete Log (ECC and Diffie-Hellman)Symmetric Cryptography and HashesLattice-Based and Post-Quantum CryptographyHash-based cryptography and othersSummaryOther cryptographic impactsBottom line for cryptographyHow AQC Could Enhance CybersecurityQuantum-Enhanced Security ProtocolsOptimization for Secure Network DesignQuantum-Assisted Threat DetectionCryptanalysis for GoodQuantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Quantum-safe commsPost-Quantum Cryptography Transition SupportSummaryCurrent Developments in Adiabatic Quantum ComputingAcademic Research on Universal AQCQuantum Speedup ControversyHardware Research – Toward Universal AQCCommercial and Industry ProgressGovernment use and interestUniversal AQC in AcademiaSoftware and AlgorithmsQuantum Annealing and AI/MLStandardization and BenchmarksFeasibility and Timeline for Cryptographic RelevanceCurrent StateComparative Development SpeedBarriers to AQC’s cryptographic applicationTimeline EstimatesDefensive Strategies Against AQC-Related ThreatsConclusionKey takeaways for cybersecurity professionalsIntroduction Quantum computing promises to solve certain classes of problems that are intractable for classical computers by exploiting quantum-mechanical phenomena like superposition, entanglement, and tunneling. There are multiple models of quantum computation, with the gate-based (circuit) model being the most widely known. Gate-based quantum computers apply sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits) analogous to how classical computers use Boolean gates on bits​. This “universal” gate model can perform any computation a classical computer can (and more efficiently for specific problems like factoring via D-Wave Systems) already boast thousands of qubits dedicated to AQC, far surpassing the qubit counts of current gate-model machines – albeit with significant differences in capability​. Second, AQC is theoretically powerful: it has been proven that under ideal conditions, the adiabatic model is polynomially equivalent to the gate model of quantum computing (meaning any problem solvable by one can be solved by the other with... --- ### Quantum Technology Initiatives in Europe and EU > Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor... - Published: 2024-11-20 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-europe-eu/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Europe Main Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor encompassing the EU and its member states. The historical commitment to quantum science is now manifesting in tangible outputs: prototype quantum computers in laboratories and supercomputing centers, quantum-secure communication testbeds linking cities, and quantum sensors poised to revolutionize measurements from under the Earth to outer space. The European Union’s flagship program and national quantum strategies in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and elsewhere have created a momentum that engages both prestigious research institutions (ETH Zurich, CNRS, Max Planck Society, etc.) and a growing quantum startup sector (Pasqal, IQM, Atos, and many more). IntroductionQuantum Computing Initiatives and AdvancementsPan-European Programs: The Quantum Flagship and BeyondNational Strategies: Germany, France, the Netherlands, and OthersLeading Research Institutions and Academic-Industry CollaborationQuantum Communications and Cryptography in EuropeBuilding a Continental Quantum Network: QKD and the Quantum InternetAdvances in Quantum Cryptography and Post-Quantum SecurityQuantum Sensing and Metrology DevelopmentsEurope’s Global Position in Quantum Technologies: Strengths and ChallengesConclusion and OutlookIntroduction European involvement in quantum research dates back several decades, with EU-wide collaborations steadily growing since the early 2000s. Over the years, the European Commission funded a series of projects on quantum information and technology under its Framework Programs, laying groundwork for today’s efforts. A watershed moment came in 2016 with the Quantum Manifesto, a call to action endorsed by over 3,500 scientists and industry stakeholders across Europe. This manifesto galvanized political support and led to the launch of the EU Quantum Technologies Flagship in 2018 – a €1 billion, 10-year initiative aimed at keeping Europe at the forefront of the “second quantum revolution. ” The Quantum Flagship followed in the footsteps of other EU large-scale science programs (like the Graphene Flagship and the Human Brain Project) and marked one of the EU’s most ambitious research investments to date. Since its launch, the Quantum Flagship has funded a portfolio of R&D projects spanning quantum computing, communications, simulation, metrology, and enabling technologies. In the 2018–2021 ramp-up phase alone, it supported 20 major projects and engaged over 5,000 researchers across Europe. This coordinated approach sought to leverage Europe’s longstanding scientific excellence – indeed, over 50% of academic papers in quantum physics in the mid-2010s had European authors – and translate it into technological leadership. Early milestones included demonstrators like OpenSuperQ, a pan-European effort to build a 100-qubit superconducting quantum computer hosted at Jülich, Germany. By consolidating national strengths into a collective strategy, the EU aimed to kick-start... --- ### IBM Unveils 156-Qubit ‘Heron R2’ Quantum Processor > IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor - Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio - Published: 2024-11-20 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r2-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor called Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio. The Heron R2 chip is the second-generation follow-up to IBM’s 133-qubit “Heron” processor introduced in late 2023. Building on its predecessor, the Heron R2 not only adds more qubits but also delivers major improvements in qubit coherence, gate fidelity, and overall computational efficiency. IBM researchers report that the new system can execute quantum circuits with up to 5,000 two-qubit gate operations, nearly doubling the 2,880 two-qubit gate depth achieved in IBM’s 2023 benchmark. Technical Advancements in the Heron R2 ChipQiskit Software Updates Optimize Heron R2 PerformanceHeron R2’s Place in IBM’s Quantum RoadmapYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2024) – IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor called Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio. The Heron R2 chip is the second-generation follow-up to IBM’s 133-qubit “Heron” processor introduced in late 2023. Building on its predecessor, the Heron R2 not only adds more qubits but also delivers major improvements in qubit coherence, gate fidelity, and overall computational efficiency. IBM researchers report that the new system can execute quantum circuits with up to 5,000 two-qubit gate operations, nearly doubling the 2,880 two-qubit gate depth achieved in IBM’s 2023 benchmark. Thanks to these hardware upgrades and accompanying software optimizations, complex workloads that previously took over 120 hours to run on IBM’s best quantum machine can now be completed in roughly 2. 4 hours – an almost 50× speedup. IBM claims the Heron R2-based system is now powerful enough to tackle useful scientific problems in domains like materials science, chemistry, life sciences, and high-energy physics. The Heron R2 was unveiled at IBM’s Quantum Developer Conference in November 2024 as the company’s latest effort to push quantum computing toward practical “utility scale” performance. The new processor features 156 superconducting qubits arranged in IBM’s signature heavy-hexagonal lattice topology. This represents a modest qubit count increase from the 133 qubits in the original Heron chip, but far more important are the qualitative improvements under the hood. IBM has emphasized that qubit quantity alone is only one factor – coherence time, gate quality, and circuit capacity often matter more for achieving useful results. On those fronts, the Heron R2 brings substantial gains. It retains the tunable coupler architecture introduced with Heron R1, which allows inter-qubit... --- ### Quantum Hacking: Cybersecurity of Quantum Systems > While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity​​. As quantum computing moves into cloud... - Published: 2024-11-19 - Modified: 2025-02-20 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-hacking/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity​​. As quantum computing moves into cloud platforms and multi-user environments, attackers will undoubtedly seek ways to exploit them. IntroductionHacking Quantum ComputersAttack Vectors on Quantum HardwareExploiting Quantum Error Correction WeaknessesSide-Channel Attacks on Quantum ProcessorsSecurity Risks in Quantum Cloud ComputingHacking Quantum Communication Systems (QKD)Attacks on QKD Protocols and ImplementationSide-Channel Attacks on QKD HardwareGeneral Security Risks in Quantum TechnologiesFuture Security Implications and Mitigation StrategiesIntroduction Quantum technologies – from quantum computers to quantum communication systems – promise unprecedented capabilities and security. Quantum key distribution (QKD) is often advertised as "unhackable" because any eavesdropping is supposed to be revealed by the laws of physics. Similarly, quantum computers are powerful but delicate devices, leading some to believe they are secure by their very nature. However, no system is truly unhackable; even quantum systems have vulnerabilities. In theory, quantum cryptography offers provable security, but in practice implementation flaws and side-channels can be exploited​​. This article explores how quantum computers and communication systems can be hacked, examining known attack vectors, real-world exploits, and the broader security risks facing emerging quantum technologies. I will also discuss mitigation strategies and future implications for securing quantum systems. Hacking Quantum Computers Quantum computers operate with qubits in fragile superposition and entangled states. They require ultra-stable environments and error correction to function. While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity​​. As quantum computing moves into cloud platforms and multi-user environments, attackers will undoubtedly seek ways to exploit them. Below I'll outline key attack vectors on quantum computing hardware and software: Attack Vectors on Quantum Hardware Quantum hardware is highly sensitive to environmental disturbances. An attacker who can influence the physical environment of a quantum processor may induce decoherence or errors in qubits, disrupting computations or causing malfunction. For example, quantum devices are heat- and noise-sensitive, so an attacker could introduce excess heat or electromagnetic noise to force errors or even a shutdown –... --- ### Quantum AI: Harnessing Quantum Computing for AI (2024 Update) > Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with capabilities of AI... - Published: 2024-10-31 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-ai-qai/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with the learning capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI)​. In essence, QAI seeks to use quantum computing—which exploits phenomena like superposition and entanglement—to run AI algorithms that learn from data and make decisions, potentially far more efficiently than on classical computers​. This fusion promises to create more powerful and intelligent systems than those currently possible with classical computing alone​. IntroductionWhy Quantum Computing Is Suited for AIQuantum Parallelism (Superposition)Quantum Superposition and Exponentially Large State SpacesEntanglement and CorrelationsInterference and AmplificationQuantum Tunneling (Adiabatic Quantum Computation)Quantum-Inspired AlgorithmsSummaryQuantum AI Across Key Subfields of Artificial IntelligenceQuantum Machine Learning (Supervised and Unsupervised Learning)Quantum Deep Learning (Neural Networks and Deep Neural Architectures)Quantum Natural Language Processing (QNLP)Quantum Generative AI (Quantum GANs and Generative Models)Quantum Reinforcement Learning (QRL)Theoretical Foundations of Quantum AIQuantum Algorithms and Complexity Relevant to AIPractical Applications of Quantum AIOptimization and LogisticsQuantum-Enhanced Machine Learning for Business AnalyticsDrug Discovery and ChemistryQuantum AI in Material Science and PhysicsNatural Language and Customer InteractionFinance and Economics – Generative Scenarios and RiskGovernment and DefenseSpace and AerospaceRecent Academic Research and Key Papers in QAIIndustry, Academic, and Government Efforts in QAICommercial Sector: Tech Giants and StartupsAcademic and Research InstitutionsGovernment and National InitiativesRisks, Challenges, and Limitations of Quantum AIConclusion and OutlookIntroduction Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with the learning capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI)​. In essence, QAI seeks to use quantum computing—which exploits phenomena like superposition and entanglement—to run AI algorithms that learn from data and make decisions, potentially far more efficiently than on classical computers​. This fusion promises to create more powerful and intelligent systems than those currently possible with classical computing alone​. In QAI, quantum computers execute or inspire new machine learning and reasoning methods, while AI provides the frameworks (such as neural networks or decision processes) that can benefit from quantum speed-ups and capacity. Although still in its early stages, QAI is widely seen as a potential revolution across industries​. Major improvements are anticipated in how we solve complex problems and design intelligent solutions. The field has attracted significant investments from both government and private sectors, reflecting a global recognition of its transformative potential​. Collaborative efforts between academia and industry have been... --- ### Quantum Sensing - Key Use Cases > At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately... - Published: 2024-10-30 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-use-cases/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately constrained by thermal noise, electronic noise, and even the fundamental “shot noise” of particles. Quantum sensors break past these limits by exploiting the quirky properties of quantum mechanics, like superposition and entanglement. In a quantum sensor, particles (atoms, electrons, photons) are prepared in delicate quantum states that respond to minuscule changes in the environment. Because of this, quantum devices can detect tiny signals with precision beyond any classical strategy. IntroductionTransformative Use Cases Across IndustriesHealthcare: Imaging and Diagnostics ReimaginedDefense & Security: A Quantum Leap in Sensing CapabilitiesSpace & Climate Science: Eyes on Earth and BeyondEnergy & Industry: Precision and Efficiency BoostsFundamental Science: New Eyes on the UniverseConclusionIntroduction Imagine being able to see the invisible – detecting the faint magnetic whisper of a human brain in action, or sensing a submarine’s subtle disturbance of Earth’s gravity from miles away. Welcome to the world of quantum sensing, a breakthrough technology poised to redefine how we perceive reality. In this new era, sensors harness weird and wondrous quantum effects to achieve seemingly impossible precision. They can measure phenomena so faint or distant that classical instruments fall silent, much as a night vision scope reveals a starry sky invisible to the naked eye. Quantum sensing isn’t just an incremental improvement; it’s transformational – a leap that promises to unlock realms of detection once confined to science fiction. At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately constrained by thermal noise, electronic noise, and even the fundamental “shot noise” of particles. Quantum sensors break past these limits by exploiting the quirky properties of quantum mechanics, like superposition and entanglement. In a quantum sensor, particles (atoms, electrons, photons) are prepared in delicate quantum states that respond to minuscule changes in the environment. Because of this, quantum devices can detect tiny signals with precision beyond any classical strategy. For example, laser interferometers augmented with quantum‐entangled light have measured the ripples of spacetime from colliding black holes over a billion light years away. This level of sensitivity – literally nudging up against the limits set by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle – is what makes quantum sensing so profound. It’s as if nature gave us a noise floor, and... --- ### Guide to Quantum ML for Data Scientists > Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional machine learning. - Published: 2024-10-16 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-machine-learning-qml/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional machine learning. The motivation is simple: as data grows and models become more complex, classical computing faces limitations in speed and capacity. Quantum computers leverage principles like superposition and entanglement to process information in fundamentally new ways, which could provide drastic improvements for certain computational tasks​. Introduction to Quantum Machine LearningWhy is quantum computing relevant to ML? Quantum principles and how they link to MLChallenges in classical ML that quantum might solveCore QML AlgorithmsQuantum Support Vector Machines (QSVM)Quantum Neural Networks (QNN)Quantum Generative Adversarial Networks (QGAN)Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBM)Quantum Kernel MethodsComparisons with Classical ML ApproachesWhere Quantum Might Outperform Classical MLWhere Classical ML is Still Superior (for Now)Code ImplementationQuantum SVM with QiskitQuantum Neural Network with TensorFlow QuantumQuantum GAN with PennyLaneReal-World Use CasesFinanceHealthcareMaterials ScienceCybersecurityOptimization and LogisticsSummaryLimitations & ChallengesQuantum Hardware ConstraintsNoise, Error Correction, and Reliability --- ### Australia Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology > Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning... - Published: 2024-09-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-australia/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Australia Main Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning government, academia, and industry. The country has built a solid foundation with landmark research in quantum computing (particularly in silicon qubit hardware and error correction) and has extended its expertise to quantum communications and sensing applications. With the National Quantum Strategy and increased funding, Australia is doubling down on its strengths – aiming to translate its scientific leadership into economic opportunities and strategic capabilities. The coming years will test Australia’s ability to scale up prototype quantum devices, train and attract a specialized workforce, and foster startups into global competitors. The government’s backing and policy support, combined with the agility of Australian startups and the knowledge base of its universities, bode well for continued progress. Brief Historical Overview of Quantum Research in AustraliaQuantum Computing Advancements in AustraliaGovernment-Backed Quantum Initiatives and PolicyLeading Academic Research Institutions and BreakthroughsPrivate-Sector Quantum Developments in AustraliaQuantum Communications, Cryptography and Sensing AdvancementsGeopolitical and Competitive LandscapeConclusion and OutlookAustralia has emerged as a significant player in the global quantum technology race, leveraging decades of fundamental research to drive new national programs in quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. This report provides a technical overview of Australia’s quantum initiatives – from early academic milestones to government strategies, leading research institutions, private-sector ventures, advances in quantum cryptography/sensing, and the nation’s positioning in the geopolitical landscape. Brief Historical Overview of Quantum Research in Australia Australian scientists have been active in quantum physics since the late 20th century, building on strengths in quantum optics and “cheap and cheerful” table-top experiments that made the most of limited resources. A major inflection point came in 1999 with the launch of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology (CQC2T), based at the University of New South Wales (UNSW). This center – the best-funded Australian centre of excellence for two decades – focused on the singular goal of designing and building a silicon-based quantum computer. The collaborative effort yielded world-leading results, including the world’s first single-atom transistor in 2012 and the first two-qubit logic gate in silicon in 2015. These breakthroughs cleared crucial hurdles toward realizing quantum processors in silicon. In parallel, Australia established other centers of excellence exploring quantum technologies. The Centre for Engineered Quantum Systems (EQUS, funded 2011–2024) pursued quantum machines and sensing, while groups like the Centre for Quantum-Atom Optics (ACQAO) and CUDOS advanced atom optics and photonic quantum devices. This strong research base meant that Australian quantum science “punched above its weight” internationally, even as global investment in quantum R&D accelerated in... --- ### Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Meets Quantum AI (QAI) > Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity... - Published: 2024-09-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-quantum-ai-qai/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum AI Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity. PQC aims to develop cryptographic algorithms that can withstand attacks by quantum computers, while QAI explores the use of quantum computing and AI to both break and bolster cryptographic systems. IntroductionTechnical Insights into QAI and Cryptographic SecurityQuantum-Enhanced Cryptanalysis and AIImpact on Post-Quantum Algorithms and Lattice AttacksQAI in Defensive Cryptography and Protocol DesignUse Cases at the Intersection of PQC and QAIQuantum AI Breaking Classical EncryptionAI-Optimized Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)Secure Multiparty Computation and Homomorphic Encryption with QAI SupportQuantum-Resistant AI-Driven Cybersecurity FrameworksRegulatory and Strategic ImplicationsGlobal Standards and Government PreparednessQuantum AI Arms Race and Cryptographic SovereigntyFuture-Proofing Organizational Security Against QAI ThreatsConclusionIntroduction Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity. PQC aims to develop cryptographic algorithms that can withstand attacks by quantum computers, while QAI explores the use of quantum computing and AI to both break and bolster cryptographic systems. This article delves into deep technical insights on how QAI influences cryptographic security, examines use cases where QAI is changing the game for attacks and defenses, and discusses the regulatory and strategic implications of this quantum-AI intersection. We draw on academic research, industry whitepapers, and government initiatives to provide a well-rounded, cited exploration of this cutting-edge topic. Technical Insights into QAI and Cryptographic Security Quantum-Enhanced Cryptanalysis and AI Quantum computing promises dramatic speedups for certain computations, directly threatening traditional cryptography. Shor’s quantum algorithm famously can factor large integers and compute discrete logarithms in polynomial time, breaking RSA and elliptic-curve cryptosystems once a sufficiently large quantum computer exists. This means that widely used public-key algorithms would be defeated by a quantum computer’s ability to “sift through a vast number of potential solutions” much faster than classical computers​. Likewise, Grover’s algorithm provides a quadratic speedup for brute-force search, effectively halving the security of symmetric ciphers: for example, breaking AES-128 by Grover’s method would take on the order of $$2^{64}$$ operations instead of $$2^{128}$$, a big but manageable change mitigated by doubling key sizes (e. g. using AES-256)​. In practice,... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Aerospace & Automotive > Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation... - Published: 2024-09-09 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-aerospace-automotive/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Aerospace & Automotive Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation is still years away. In this article, we’ve seen that current developments – from corporate partnerships and research alliances to early quantum prototypes tackling real use cases – have already laid the groundwork. Automotive companies are using quantum algorithms in pilot projects to optimize everything from battery chemistry to factory logistics, and aerospace engineers are testing quantum methods for design optimization and materials discovery. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesAutomotive – Vehicle Design, Materials, Batteries & EfficiencyManufacturing & Supply Chain OptimizationAutonomous Vehicles & AIAerospace – Propulsion, Materials, and SpaceThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction ​Quantum computing harnesses principles of quantum mechanics – like superposition and entanglement – to process information in ways that classical computers cannot. The allure is clear: large-scale, error-free quantum computers could theoretically perform tasks impossible for today’s supercomputers​. This potential has massive implications for industries such as aerospace and automotive, where progress often hinges on crunching extremely complex computations. For example, aerospace engineers must simulate turbulent airflow around new aircraft designs – a feat so demanding that even the best classical simulations fall short, forcing reliance on costly wind tunnel tests​. Likewise, automakers grapple with multifaceted challenges from vehicle dynamics to battery chemistry that tax conventional high-performance computing. Quantum computing promises orders-of-magnitude boosts in computing capability for these problems​, making it a potential game-changer for designing better planes and cars, optimizing transportation networks, and accelerating innovation across both sectors. Global interest and investment in quantum tech are soaring accordingly. In the United States, government funding for quantum computing R&D nearly doubled from $449 million in 2019 to about $968 million in 2024​. Major aerospace and automotive companies are likewise pouring resources into quantum experimentation. The reason is simple: if quantum computers can eventually solve intractable equations for aerodynamics, materials science, or traffic optimization, the payoff would be transformative. Quantum algorithms might discover ultra-light yet strong composites for cars and aircraft, or instantly compute optimal routes for fleets to save fuel and time. In short, quantum computing’s ability to tackle “computationally intensive tasks” beyond classical limits​ positions it as a critical emerging technology for two of the world’s most technologically demanding industries. Current Developments Both the aerospace and... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Finance & Banking > Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector... - Published: 2024-08-31 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-finance-banking/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Finance & Banking Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector. Quantum technologies hold the potential to transform financial services – improving risk management, turbocharging trading and analytics, enhancing cybersecurity, and even forcing a paradigm shift in how data is secured. Banks and institutions around the world are investing in research and partnerships to stay quantum-ready, recognizing both the competitive opportunities and the existential threats that quantum computing brings. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Risk Management & Portfolio OptimizationQuantum Cryptography & Cybersecurity in FinanceQuantum Speedup in High-Frequency TradingQuantum Computing for Fraud Detection & ComplianceQuantum Monte Carlo Simulations in Financial ForecastingPost-Quantum Cryptography & Threats to Financial InstitutionsThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing promises to upend computing as we know it, harnessing quantum physics to perform calculations far beyond classical limits. Unlike ordinary bits, qubits can exist in multiple states at once and become entangled, enabling exponential processing power​. For the Finance and Banking sector, this power could be game-changing. Quantum computers have the potential to solve complex problems in finance – from simulating markets to optimizing investments – that are intractable for today’s supercomputers​. At the same time, they pose new risks by potentially breaking the encryption that secures financial data​. It’s no wonder banks are paying close attention. In fact, financial services are emerging as early adopters of quantum tech. Many major banks have launched quantum research initiatives or partnerships, eager to gain a competitive edge in risk analysis, trading, and security​. “There are more banks doing this serious effort in quantum than... in any other industry,” notes IBM Quantum’s research lead​. The allure is clear: quantum computing could unlock unprecedented modeling and optimization capabilities for finance – if the industry can also manage the profound cybersecurity challenges it brings. Current Developments From Wall Street to global central banks, investment in quantum R&D has surged in recent years. Banks are pouring resources into quantum computing teams, collaborations, and prototypes to prepare for a quantum-enabled future. JPMorgan Chase has been at the forefront, establishing its Global Technology Applied Research center to explore quantum algorithms for finance. The bank has partnered with IBM, Amazon, and academic labs on projects ranging from quantum portfolio optimization to... --- ### India Tests First Indigenous 6-Qubit Quantum Processor > India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting... - Published: 2024-08-30 - Modified: 2025-03-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/india-6-qubit-quantum-processor/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: India India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting quantum processor. A team of scientists from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) completed end-to-end testing of the 6-qubit device, marking a major step in India’s quantum research efforts​. This prototype – the country’s first quantum chip based on superconducting circuits – demonstrates India’s entry into the quantum hardware arena, a field dominated so far by only a few nations. India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting quantum processor. A team of scientists from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) completed end-to-end testing of the 6-qubit device, marking a major step in India’s quantum research efforts​. This prototype – the country’s first quantum chip based on superconducting circuits – demonstrates India’s entry into the quantum hardware arena, a field dominated so far by only a few nations. A Milestone for India’s Quantum Computing Program The successful test involved running quantum circuits on the indigenous processor through a cloud platform, demonstrating full stack integration. Researchers submitted a quantum program via a cloud interface, which was executed on the cryogenic 6-qubit hardware in real-time, and the results were sent back to the user – an end-to-end demonstration of a working quantum computing system​. Notably, all key components were developed in India: the qubits were designed and fabricated at TIFR’s Mumbai lab, using a novel ring-resonator architecture invented by TIFR scientists​. The control electronics and software stack were assembled by DRDO’s Young Scientists Laboratory for Quantum Technologies (DYSL-QT) in Pune with help from TCS, illustrating a collaborative effort between defense labs, academia, and industry. Key features of the 6-qubit quantum processor include: Superconducting Qubit Design: The processor uses superconducting circuit technology, making it the first of its kind to be designed and tested in India​. Superconducting qubits are the same approach used by leading quantum computing firms globally, underscoring the significance of India developing this technology domestically. End-to-End Functionality: The team demonstrated the chip’s functionality via a cloud-based interface – a user could send a quantum circuit to the processor, have it run on the 6-qubit hardware, and receive the... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Government & Defense > Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises... - Published: 2024-08-30 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-government-defense/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Government & Defense Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises enhancements across the board – unbreakable communications, unprecedented computing power for logistics and AI, new sensors that reveal hidden threats, and simulations that accelerate innovation. It also carries profound disruptive potential, especially for cybersecurity, meaning it can just as easily undermine a nation that is unprepared. IntroductionCurrent Developments in Quantum TechIndustry-Specific Use CasesCryptanalysis and Post-Quantum CryptographySecure Communications and Quantum NetworkingOptimization of Logistics and OperationsArtificial Intelligence and Machine LearningQuantum-Enhanced SimulationsSpace and Satellite ApplicationsQuantum Sensing for Detection, Navigation, and StealthIntroduction ​Quantum computing harnesses the counterintuitive principles of quantum mechanics – superposition and entanglement – to process information in ways impossible for classical computers. Unlike binary bits, quantum bits (qubits) can exist in multiple states at once (superposition) and influence each other instantaneously over distance (entanglement), enabling certain computations at exponentially faster scales​. These capabilities carry enormous promise for government and defense: solving complex problems in seconds that would take today’s supercomputers millennia, and unlocking new methods for secure communication and sensing. Defense experts warn that the first nation to fully operationalize quantum technology will gain a toolkit of capabilities that could overwhelm unprepared adversaries​. Indeed, some analysts compare the current quantum race to the Manhattan Project – a high-stakes technological contest that may determine the strategic balance of the 21st century​. In this article, we explore how quantum computing is poised to impact the global government and defense sector – from breakthroughs already underway to the revolutionary changes on the horizon. Current Developments in Quantum Tech Quantum computing is rapidly evolving from theory to reality, with government and industry efforts accelerating worldwide. Research Initiatives: Public-sector investment is at an all-time high. The United States launched a National Quantum Initiative and numerous Department of Defense (DoD) programs, while China’s public spending on quantum tech reportedly exceeds $15 billion – several times the U. S. level. U. S. defense agencies like DARPA are actively partnering with tech companies to benchmark progress. In fact, DARPA’s Quantum Benchmarking Initiative is enlisting multiple firms by 2025 to vet whether their quantum prototypes are on a practical path, with the goal of validating useful defense-ready... --- ### Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible, Safe, Secure AI > Addressing the Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible AI, Trustworthy AI, Secure AI, Ethical AI, and Safe AI Explained - Published: 2024-08-23 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/responsible-ai-secure-ai/ - Categories: Quantum AI - Tags: featured As AI continues to evolve and integrate deeper into societal frameworks, the strategies for its governance, alignment, and security must also advance, ensuring that AI enhances human capabilities without undermining human values. This requires a vigilant, adaptive approach that is responsive to new challenges and opportunities, aiming for an AI future that is as secure as it is progressive. IntroductionTrustworthy vs Responsible AITrustworthy AIAttributes of trustworthy AI1.      Transparent, interpretable and explainable2.      Accountable3.      Reliable, resilient, safe and secure4.      Fair and non-discriminatory5.      Safety and Robustness6.      Human-Centric Design7.      Inclusivity and AccessibilityResponsible AI SummarySecure AI, Safe AI and the wicked problem of AI alignmentSecure AIThe foundations of AI securityConfidentialityIntegrityAvailabilityChallenges in Securing AIScalabilityEvolving Threat LandscapeIntegration with Existing SystemsModel securityMonitoring and Capability ControlMaintaining AlignmentAlignment methodsConclusionIntroduction We have known for a long time that change is unavoidable. It is, as Heraclitus said more than 2,500 years ago, the only constant. And there has, especially since 1965 when Gordon Moore declared his now famous “law”, been a growing recognition that the pace of change is accelerating. But, what people tend to talk about far less is the resistance to change, a phenomenon as natural as change itself. It’s written into human nature, even into the fabric of the physical world: Newton’s third law of motion declares that for every action in the world there is an equal but opposite reaction. People don’t like change, and when it’s forced upon them, they dig in their heels. Does that explain the many concerns that experts across the world have about the now-rampant development of AI? Are these people, as many technophiles suggest, overreacting, merely resisting the unavoidable tide of change because they are afraid of the unknown? As I map out in my personal statement on AI risk, the simple answer to that question is ‘No’. There are many reasons to be concerned about unrestricted AI development - just ask those at the epicentre of the technology’s boom. Last year’s shock ouster of OpenAI CEO, Sam Altman, by the OpenAI Board was partly motivated by the belief that Altman was shortcutting due diligence and not doing enough to ensure OpenAI’s technologies were... --- ### Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in the USA > The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system... - Published: 2024-08-22 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/us-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: United States Main The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system integration, rather than just laboratory science. The next decade will be critical. If current trends hold, we will witness U.S. quantum computers tackling problems that were impossible before, quantum communications protecting real-world data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that society relies on. The U.S. has laid a strong foundation through its national initiatives, research excellence, and industry agility. Maintaining leadership will require sustained investment, a continued focus on education and talent, and smart partnerships between government, academia, and industry. IntroductionHistorical Context of U. S. Quantum ResearchQuantum Computing: Current State of U. S. Initiatives and AdvancesGovernment Strategy and National ProgramsResearch Leadership and Industry AdvancesQuantum Communications and Post-Quantum CryptographyQuantum Sensing and Metrology ApplicationsThe U. S. Global Position in the Quantum Technology RaceFuture Outlook: U. S. Quantum Research in the Coming YearsIntroduction Over a decade ago, I had the opportunity to work in the United States at the forefront of quantum technology. I even founded a startup, Boston Photonics, 12 years ago to explore photonic quantum computing. Admittedly, we were ahead of our time – quantum tech was still nascent and funding was scarce – and the company faced challenges. Yet, the experience was invaluable. It immersed me in the vibrant U. S. quantum ecosystem of the early 2010s, from cutting-edge academic labs to scrappy startups and strategic government forums. Even back then, it was clear that the U. S. was taking quantum technology very seriously. Researchers and officials frequently discussed the potential of quantum computing and communications, and their profound geopolitical implications. I remember participating in workshops where the talk wasn’t just about qubits and algorithms, but also about economic competitiveness and security – how quantum breakthroughs could redefine national power in the coming decades. This early insight into American efforts underscored a key point: the U. S. recognized early on that quantum technology would be more than just a scientific endeavor; it would be a strategic national asset. Those early experiences set the stage for what we see today. The United States has since launched major national initiatives in quantum information science, driven by both excitement over technological possibilities and awareness of global competition. Historical Context of U. S. Quantum Research The United States has been at the forefront of quantum science for decades, laying much of the groundwork that... --- ### NIST Unveils Post‑Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Standards > NIST has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms... - Published: 2024-08-13 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-standards/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms selected to protect data against future quantum-computer attacks. These four algorithms – CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, FALCON, and SPHINCS+ – emerged as the winners of NIST’s multi-year global competition to develop encryption and digital signature schemes that can withstand attacks from quantum computers. The Four Quantum-Resistant AlgorithmsYears in the Making: The PQC Standardization ProcessSecuring the Future: Significance for Cybersecurity and InfrastructureRegulatory Momentum: Governments Poised to Mandate Quantum-Resistant SecurityIndustry Response: Tech Giants Embrace the PQC EraConclusionGaithersburg, MD, USA (August 2024) – The U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms selected to protect data against future quantum-computer attacks. These four algorithms – CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, FALCON, and SPHINCS+ – emerged as the winners of NIST’s multi-year global competition to develop encryption and digital signature schemes that can withstand attacks from quantum computers. NIST has finalized three of the algorithms as Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) for immediate use, covering one general encryption method and two digital signature schemes, with the fourth algorithm’s standard expected by late 2024. The official announcement marks the culmination of an eight-year effort by NIST to proactively counter the quantum threat. “These finalized standards are the capstone of NIST’s efforts to safeguard our confidential electronic information,” said NIST Director Laurie Locascio. The new standards are built on hard mathematical problems – structured lattices and hash functions – that even quantum computers are not expected to solve, unlike today’s RSA and elliptic-curve cryptography which would be vulnerable. NIST is urging organizations to begin transitioning to the new algorithms as soon as possible now that the standards are ready. “The algorithms announced today are specified in the first completed standards from NIST’s PQC project, and are ready for immediate use,” the agency noted . This milestone “marks a significant milestone for ensuring that today’s communications remain secure in a future world where large-scale quantum computers are a reality” . The Four Quantum-Resistant Algorithms NIST’s four chosen algorithms each address a critical cryptographic need in... --- ### Myths and Realities of Quantum Commercialization > Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty... - Published: 2024-08-12 - Modified: 2025-04-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/myths-quantum-commercialization/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty does not mean it’s “too early.” The myths we unpacked – that quantum is always 20 years away, that only giants can play, that no market exists, that we can passively wait to license, or that generic support will do – all share a common trait: they underestimate the momentum and ingenuity already at work in the quantum ecosystem. The reality is that in labs and startups across the world, quantum technologies are taking their first steps into the marketplace. University spin-outs are building actual devices and software, signing on pilot customers, and attracting investment, thereby proving these myths wrong one by one. Each trapped-ion module sold, each quantum-secure communication link deployed, each optimization algorithm tested on a quantum processor is a brick in the road from research to industry. That road is being paved now, not in some distant future. And like any new road, it pays to have a good map. Specialized accelerators, government initiatives, and services such as Quantum TTO – which provides domain-specific commercialization guidance – are part of that map. Myth 1: “It’s Too Early – Quantum Tech Is Decades Away”Myth 2: “Only Big Companies Can Commercialize Quantum”Myth 3: “There’s No Market Yet for Quantum – No One to Buy It”Myth 4: “We Can Just License the IP Later – No Need for a Startup Now”Myth 5: “Our Regular Tech Transfer Process Is Enough – Quantum Doesn’t Need Specialized Support”Embracing Reality: Quantum’s Commercial Journey Has BegunIn a university lab late one evening, a quantum physicist stares at her experimental prototype and wonders if it will ever leave the confines of academia. “Maybe it’s 20 years too early to build a product from this,” she muses. Down the hall, an innovation manager fields a call from an investor who insists only tech giants like IBM and Google can make money from quantum. Such scenes are playing out at campuses worldwide. They reveal a quiet tug-of-war between extraordinary scientific progress and the cautious voices whispering that quantum technology isn’t ready for prime time. These whispers – call them myths – can profoundly shape the fate of university spin-offs. Universities are hotbeds of quantum innovation, from cutting-edge quantum computing prototypes to novel quantum sensors and secure communication systems. Yet technology transfer offices (TTOs) and entrepreneurship teams supporting these breakthroughs often encounter skeptical questions. Isn’t it too early? Is there even a market? Should we just license the patents and wait? Myths like these can hold back promising quantum ventures, keeping transformative ideas stuck in the lab. Meanwhile, investors and industry partners circle the quantum field with equal parts excitement and caution, unsure what is science fiction and what is viable business. To bridge this gap, we need to unpack the myths – and see what’s really happening out there. As we’ll find, the story of quantum commercialization today has echoes of past innovation... --- ### Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in Canada > Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal... - Published: 2024-08-07 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-canada/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Canada Main Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal and economic benefits. The country’s National Quantum Strategy, with its coordinated missions in computing, communications, and sensing, provides a roadmap for the next stage of quantum innovation in Canada . In the immediate future, we can expect to see a ramp-up of activity on several fronts. Quantum computing hardware developed by Canadian companies will continue to advance: D-Wave is slated to deliver new generations of annealers and is working toward a gate-model quantum processor, while Xanadu is on track to refine its photonic qubit technology with the long-term goal of a fault-tolerant quantum computer. These efforts, supported by government investment and private capital, could yield prototype quantum processors of increasing size and reliability within a few years. Historical ContextQuantum Computing in Canada: Current State of AdvancementsGovernment Initiatives and National StrategyAcademic Research Hubs and Quantum “Valleys”Private Sector Developments: D-Wave, Xanadu and a Budding Quantum IndustryQuantum Communications and Cryptography InitiativesQuantum Sensing and Metrology DevelopmentsCanada’s Global Position in the Quantum Technology RaceThe Canadian Quantum Ecosystem: Strengths and ObservationsConclusion and Future OutlookHistorical Context Canada’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the field’s earliest breakthroughs. In 1984, Canadian cryptographer Gilles Brassard (University of Montreal), together with IBM’s Charles Bennett, developed the first quantum key distribution (QKD) protocol (known as BB84), a foundational advance in secure quantum communications. By the late 1990s and early 2000s, Canada began making strategic investments to build a national quantum research ecosystem. BlackBerry founder Mike Lazaridis, for example, donated over $100 million in 2002 to establish the Institute for Quantum Computing (IQC) at the University of Waterloo, after having founded the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1999 with a $170 million endowment. These institutions, alongside federal programs like the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR) Quantum Information Science program (launched 2002), helped position Canada as a early leader in quantum science. Around the same time, Canada also became home to the world’s first commercial quantum computing company: D-Wave Systems was founded in 1999 in British Columbia, pioneering quantum annealing machines and unveiling a 128-qubit system as the first commercially available quantum computer in 2011. These milestones set the stage for Canada’s robust quantum research community and the emergence of a “Quantum Valley” innovation cluster in the Waterloo region. Quantum Computing in Canada: Current State of Advancements Government Initiatives and National Strategy The Canadian government has developed major initiatives to support quantum technology, with a strong emphasis on quantum computing. In January 2023, Canada officially launched its National Quantum Strategy (NQS), backed by a federal investment of $360 million over... --- ### NIST to Release PQC Algorithms in the Summer > The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks... - Published: 2024-05-24 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-summer/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks, according to White House cyber advisor Anne Neuberger. This development marks a significant step towards protecting data against future quantum computing threats. Although initially planned to release four algorithms, NIST will finalize and publish three this summer. This move addresses the potential risk of quantum computers decrypting sensitive data in the future, emphasizing the ongoing need for advanced cryptographic methods. For more details, visit The Record. --- ### Bridging the Quantum Lab-to-Market Gap: How External Experts Boost Tech Transfer > Quantum’s big wins will come from breaking silos and working together. Universities, TTOs, scientists, entrepreneurs, investors... - Published: 2024-05-22 - Modified: 2025-04-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-external-tto/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The race to commercialize quantum technology is on, and it’s not a sprint by a lone runner; it’s a relay. TTOs carry the baton of discovery from the lab, but to reach the finish line of market impact, they must hand off (and continuously team up) with external partners who can run the next laps. External commercialization experts provide the extra legs, the fresh perspective, and the stamina needed for quantum’s long journey to market. The Pain Points: Why Quantum Tech Transfer Is Harder Than It LooksEnter the External Experts: What Outside Partners Bring to the TableLessons From Pharma and Semiconductors: External Support as a Force-MultiplierQuantum’s Emerging Commercialization Ecosystem: Partnerships in ActionPartners, Not Replacements: Making the Collaboration WorkToward a “Quantum TTO” – The Next FrontierConclusion: Collaboration – The Quantum Advantage in Tech TransferLast month we explored why now is the moment to commercialize quantum technology. But recognizing urgency is one thing—figuring out how to turn arcane lab breakthroughs into real-world products is another. Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs) at universities and research institutions sit at this junction, tasked with shepherding quantum discoveries toward ventures, products, or licensing deals. It’s a formidable challenge. Quantum science isn’t a smartphone app you can spin up in a garage; it’s esoteric physics, cryogenic hardware, and complex algorithms all rolled into one. So how can TTOs succeed? One answer: by teaming up with external commercialization experts who have the right mix of domain savvy, business acumen, and industry connections to complement internal efforts. In this follow-up piece, we'll look into how external partners—consultancies, venture studios, specialized advisors, accelerators—can bolster TTOs and research institutions. We’ll unpack the pain points TTOs face in quantum commercialization and look at lessons from other industries (pharma, semiconductors) that have been there, done that. We’ll also highlight real-world examples in quantum where outside partnerships helped spin out startups or seal licensing deals. The goal: show how a collaborative model where external experts and TTOs together turn quantum discoveries into successful ventures, without replacing the critical role of the TTO. The Pain Points: Why Quantum Tech Transfer Is Harder Than It Looks Even for seasoned tech transfer professionals, quantum tech presents unique headaches. TTOs are accustomed to bridging academia and industry, but quantum pushes that bridge to its... --- ### Quantum Computing Use Cases in Materials & Chemicals > Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. - Published: 2024-05-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-materials-chemicals/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Materials Science & Chemical Engineering Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. After decades of development, the vision is becoming reality. Quantum computers – though still nascent – have already shown they can emulate the quantum behavior of molecules and materials in ways that classical computers never could, hinting at their tremendous potential. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Materials DiscoveryMolecular & Chemical SimulationsQuantum-Assisted Drug & Polymer DesignBattery & Energy Storage InnovationCorrosion & Surface ScienceQuantum Sensors for Material CharacterizationSustainable & Green ChemistryThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing harnesses the counterintuitive properties of quantum physics – superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference – to process information in fundamentally new ways. Unlike classical computers limited by binary bits, quantum computers use qubits that can exist in multiple states simultaneously, enabling them to explore vast computational possibilities in parallel​. This paradigm is especially promising for materials science and chemical engineering, where many challenges boil down to understanding complex quantum-mechanical interactions of atoms and molecules​​. In fact, using quantum computers for computational chemistry and materials science may allow researchers to tackle problems “intractable on classical computers,” such as accurately simulating molecular behaviors or novel material properties​. Industry experts predict rapid growth in quantum computing over the next decade, driven largely by its potential in pharmaceutical, chemical, and materials applications​. In short, quantum computing offers a revolutionary toolset for these sectors – one that could accelerate innovation by solving equations and simulations that were previously unsolvable, ultimately leading to breakthroughs in new materials, chemical processes, and technologies. Current Developments Major strides in recent years indicate that quantum technology is steadily moving from theory to practice in materials science. Governments are investing heavily: for example, the U. S. Department of Energy launched a $30 million program to leverage quantum computing for chemistry and materials simulations​. This initiative (QC3) specifically targets breakthroughs like sustainable industrial catalysts, novel high-temperature superconductors for efficient power grids, and improved battery chemistries​. Each project in the program is challenged to achieve quantum solutions that outperform classical methods by 100× or more, aiming for transformative impacts such as significant greenhouse gas reductions or... --- ### China Unveils Xiaohong: A 504-Qubit Processor > Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip... - Published: 2024-05-11 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-xiaohong/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip ever built in China​. This record-breaking processor, developed by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics in collaboration with industry partner QuantumCTek, vaults China into the upper echelon of quantum hardware achievements. Xiaohong’s qubit count surpasses previous domestic efforts by an order of magnitude, marking a significant milestone in the nation’s quest for quantum computing leadership​. Just as importantly, the team reports that the chip’s quality metrics (qubit coherence lifetimes, gate fidelities, and usable circuit depth) are expected to rival those of leading international platforms like IBM’s quantum machines​. In other words, Xiaohong is not only bigger, but also aims to be better in reliability – a critical combination as the global quantum race accelerates. A New Milestone for China’s Quantum Computing AmbitionsFrom Zuchongzhi to Xiaohong: Rapid Progress in Qubit CountHow Xiaohong Stacks Up Against Google and IBMTechnical Advances Under the Hood – and Why They MatterBroader Implications: The Quantum Computing Race and Security ConcernsOutlookHefei, China (April 2024) - Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip ever built in China​. This record-breaking processor, developed by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics in collaboration with industry partner QuantumCTek, vaults China into the upper echelon of quantum hardware achievements. Xiaohong’s qubit count surpasses previous domestic efforts by an order of magnitude, marking a significant milestone in the nation’s quest for quantum computing leadership​. Just as importantly, the team reports that the chip’s quality metrics (qubit coherence lifetimes, gate fidelities, and usable circuit depth) are expected to rival those of leading international platforms like IBM’s quantum machines​. In other words, Xiaohong is not only bigger, but also aims to be better in reliability – a critical combination as the global quantum race accelerates. A New Milestone for China’s Quantum Computing Ambitions The unveiling of Xiaohong represents a major leap forward for China’s superconducting quantum computing program. With 504 quantum bits (qubits) on a single chip, Xiaohong crosses the long-anticipated “500+ qubit” threshold, demonstrating China’s ability to scale up quantum processors into the hundreds of qubits​. For context, the country’s previous record-holder was the Zuchongzhi 2. 1 processor with 66 qubits, debuted in 2021​. In the years since, Chinese researchers rapidly expanded their designs – from 66 qubits to 176 qubits by 2023, when an upgraded Zuchongzhi system was put online for public use​. Now Xiaohong pushes the frontier further to 504 qubits, roughly tripling the scale of China’s last-generation superconducting chips. This... --- ### Hole-Spin Qubits Demonstrated in Silicon FinFETs > Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by demonstrating a controllable interaction between hole-spin qubits... - Published: 2024-05-07 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/hole-spin-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Switzerland In a significant quantum computing breakthrough, researchers from the University of Basel and IBM Research–Zurich have achieved a controlled interaction between two quantum bits inside a standard silicon transistor. The team’s new paper "Anisotropic exchange interaction of two hole-spin qubits" in Nature Physics reports that they realized high-speed, high-fidelity operations between hole-spin qubits implemented in a fin field-effect transistor (FinFET) – a workhorse device of modern computer chips. This is the first time a two-qubit logic gate has been demonstrated using holes (the absence of electrons) confined in an industry-standard transistor structure, without any trade-off between operation speed and accuracy. The accomplishment marks a major step toward integrating quantum computing with mainstream semiconductor technology, since it shows that quantum bits (qubits) can leverage the same devices and fabrication processes used for billions of classical transistors. The significance of this result lies in its promise of scalability and compatibility. Quantum computers today remain limited to relatively small numbers of qubits, in part because they rely on exotic hardware that doesn’t easily scale. By contrast, FinFET transistors are ubiquitous in CMOS chips, so demonstrating qubits in a FinFET suggests a path to manufacturing quantum processors on a massive scale. The Basel/IBM team’s qubits achieved fast and reliable gate operations within a device essentially identical to those in commercial chips, underscoring the potential for combining quantum and classical computing architectures on the same silicon platform. In other words, this breakthrough hints that future quantum processors might be built with the very same technology that powers today’s smartphones and CPUs, vastly accelerating the marriage of quantum computing with the semiconductor industry. Understanding Hole-Spin Qubits and the New Research What is a hole-spin qubit? In a semiconductor, a “hole” is the absence of an electron – essentially a positively charged carrier that can move and... --- ### From Lab Breakthroughs to Quantum Boom: Why the Time to Commercialize is Now > External quantum commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the expertise that most academic teams lack... - Published: 2024-04-30 - Modified: 2025-04-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-commercialization/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The current stage of development in quantum isn’t about figuring out if the technology works – it’s about making it work reliably, at scale, and for a purpose. That requires an all-hands-on-deck approach. Universities and research institutes must continue to push the frontiers of knowledge. Tech transfer offices should be empowered with more resources and flexibility to nurture quantum projects for the long haul. And crucially, external commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the experience and acceleration that most academic teams lack. It’s a symbiosis: internal teams bring depth of knowledge, external partners bring breadth of execution skills. The Quantum Landscape: University Labs, Startups, and Billions in BackingEchoes of Past Tech Revolutions: From Mainframes to the InternetThe Challenge: Why Tech Transfer Offices Can’t Go It AloneCatalysts for Quantum Commercialization: Bridging the GapThe Quantum Leap: From Vision to ValueOn a crisp morning in a university lab, a team of physicists huddles around a tangle of cables and golden-hued chip racks. After months of experimentation, they’ve coaxed a handful of qubits into performing a complex calculation – a breakthrough. It’s the kind of eureka moment playing out in quantum research centers worldwide. But as the celebration fades, another question looms: how to take this fragile quantum innovation out of the lab and into the wider world? This journey – from scientific breakthrough to impactful product – defines the current stage of quantum technology. And by all accounts, quantum tech is at an inflection point: what was once the domain of ivory-tower research is rapidly becoming an ecosystem of startups, investors, and even government programs racing toward commercialization. The Quantum Landscape: University Labs, Startups, and Billions in Backing Not long ago, quantum computing and related technologies lived primarily in physics departments and national labs, intriguing scientists but far from real-world use. That’s changing fast. In the past decade, the number of quantum startups worldwide has surged by over 500%, as entrepreneurs translate quantum research into new ventures. Many of these startups are spun out of universities or founded by former graduate students and professors. They’re chasing opportunities in quantum computing hardware, software, encryption, sensing, and more. The competition is fierce, but the innovation is accelerating – reminiscent of how the personal computing boom once sprung from a proliferation of garage startups. Crucially, this quantum startup surge is being fueled by unprecedented investment. According to McKinsey, quantum tech startups secured $8. 5... --- ### Major Leap for Quantum Internet: First Critical Connection > In a pioneering achievement, researchers have established a crucial connection necessary for the quantum internet... - Published: 2024-04-20 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/imperial-quantum-internet/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom London, April 2024 – In a groundbreaking advancement for the future of global communication, researchers from Imperial College London and their partners at the Universities of Southampton, Stuttgart, and Würzburg have established a core link necessary for the quantum internet, enabling, for the first time, the production, storage, and retrieval of quantum information in a single system. According to the announcement on Imperial’s website, the collaborative team has combined quantum dot technology with atomic quantum memory, effectively interfacing these components so that quantum data can be sent and received via standard optical fibers. The innovation marks a major stride in harnessing entangled photons for long-distance, tamper-proof communication—an approach that could eventually underpin robust global quantum networks and distributed quantum computing. By uniting reliable quantum sources with stable quantum memories, the group has set the stage for true quantum-enabled infrastructure, bringing the dream of a hack-proof “quantum internet” one step closer to reality. Why It Matters This breakthrough resonates far beyond the laboratory, laying pivotal groundwork for several game-changing applications: 1. Secure Communication: Quantum networks rely on the laws of physics—rather than computational intractability—to guard against eavesdropping. Any attempt to intercept or measure quantum data irreversibly disturbs it, alerting legitimate parties to a security breach. By combining quantum dot emitters (which generate entangled photons) with atomic memories (where quantum states can be stored and retrieved), the research team effectively demonstrated a core building block for end-to-end quantum encryption over standard telecom fibers. 2. Distributed Computing: Long-distance transmission of quantum states is not just about secure messaging; it’s also a cornerstone of distributed quantum computing. Different quantum processors can be linked together to share workloads, exchange entanglement resources, and perform collaborative computations beyond the reach of classical machines. 3. Compatibility with Existing Infrastructure: By showing that quantum signals can propagate over standard... --- ### New Legislation to Boost U.S. DoD Quantum Capabilities > A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's integration of quantum - Published: 2024-04-12 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/dod-quantum-bill/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's development and integration of quantum technologies, enhancing capabilities in areas like navigation, sensing, and artificial intelligence. The Defense Quantum Acceleration Act, championed by Rep. Elise Stefanik and Sen. Marsha Blackburn, proposes the creation of a quantum advisor role and a center of excellence within the Defense Department as well as increase the funding for quantum information sciences. This move is in response to growing global competition in quantum technologies, particularly from China, which significantly outpaces the U. S. in quantum investments. The bill seeks to foster quicker innovation through increased collaboration with private sectors and academia For more details, you can read the full text of the bill here. --- ### EU Publishes a Recommendation on Post-Quantum Cryptography > EU publishes "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography" - Published: 2024-04-12 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-recommendation-post-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe In another sign of Q-Day concerns and preparations heating up recently, the European Commission has published a key recommendation urging EU member states to adopt a harmonized approach to post-quantum cryptography. This guidance, "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography," is part of the EU's proactive strategy to address the vulnerabilities of current cryptographic measures in the quantum era. The recommendation outlines a plan for transitioning to quantum-resistant cryptographic technologies. Central to this initiative are the efforts by the EU’s cybersecurity experts, along with collaborations with entities such as the NIS Cooperation Group and the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) on the evaluation and selection of the appropriate Post-Quantum Cryptography algorithms and their adoption as EU standards for a harmonized implementation across the Union. Furthermore, the Commission outlines the urgency of integrating these new cryptographic standards into existing systems and protocols. This transition is not only about adopting new algorithms but also ensuring that all current digital platforms, from public administration to private sector operations, are fortified against potential quantum-computational threats. As part of the ongoing developments, the Commission expects the first wave of these new standards to be ratified by 2024, marking a significant milestone in Europe's digital security landscape. For more details, you can view the commission's press release or see the full recommendation on the European Commission's official website. --- ### Microsoft Announces Record Breaking Logical Qubit Results > Microsoft and Quantinuum announced a significant achievement in quantum computing, demonstrating the most reliable logical qubits on record - Published: 2024-04-04 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/logical-qubit-microsoft/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Microsoft and Quantinuum have announced a major quantum computing breakthrough: the creation of the most reliable logical qubits on record, with error rates 800 times lower than those of physical qubits. In an achievement unveiled on April 3, 2024, the teams reported running over 14,000 quantum circuit trials without a single uncorrected error. This accomplishment was made possible by combining Microsoft’s innovative qubit virtualization and error-correction software with Quantinuum’s high-fidelity ion-trap hardware. The result is a dramatic leap in quantum reliability that many experts believed was still years away. Beyond setting a record, this milestone is significant for the entire quantum ecosystem. It effectively pushes quantum computing beyond the noisy intermediate-scale era (NISQ) into what Microsoft calls “Level 2 Resilient” quantum computing. In other words, the experiment demonstrated for the first time that error-corrected qubits can outperform the basic physical qubits by a wide margin, marking an essential step toward full fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC). Achieving such a low error rate for logical qubits is viewed as a critical turning point on the road to practical quantum machines. It suggests that the long-anticipated transition from today’s error-prone quantum processors to tomorrow’s robust, application-ready quantum computers is finally underway. This breakthrough paves the way for more complex quantum computations and even hybrid supercomputers that integrate quantum processors with classical high-performance computing and AI. The news underscores a new phase in the quantum computing race, injecting fresh optimism that real-world problems solvable only by quantum means may come within reach sooner than expected. Understanding Logical Qubits and Error Correction Logical qubits are an essential concept for scaling quantum computers beyond the fragile performance of individual physical qubits. A logical qubit isn’t a single physical unit, but rather a virtual qubit encoded across multiple physical qubits with the aim of detecting and correcting... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Switzerland > Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative... - Published: 2024-03-20 - Modified: 2025-03-14 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-switzerland/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Switzerland Main Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative entrepreneurship can make a country a major player in the second quantum revolution. In the span of two decades, Switzerland has built a world-class quantum R&D environment – featuring top universities (ETH, EPFL, Geneva, Basel) driving advances in computing and cryptography, national programs knitting these efforts together, and companies turning theory into practice. The country’s early bets on quantum science (e.g. funding NCCRs, supporting a QKD startup) are paying off in the form of global leadership in areas like quantum cryptography and instrumentation. As the quantum field moves from research to real-world implementation, Switzerland is well-positioned to benefit. Its strong talent pool continues to grow, with new graduates skilled in quantum engineering and computing coming out of dedicated programs. Brief Historical OverviewQuantum Computing in SwitzerlandGovernment-Backed Quantum Initiatives and StrategyAcademic Strength and ContributionsPrivate-Sector Quantum Developments in SwitzerlandQuantum Cryptography and Secure Communication LeadershipGeopolitical and Competitive LandscapeConclusion and OutlookSwitzerland punches above its weight in quantum science and technology, leveraging a long tradition of excellence in physics, strong government support, and vibrant academia-industry collaboration. Despite its modest size, Switzerland boasts some of the world’s highest-impact quantum research and early commercial successes in quantum cryptography. This report provides a technical overview of Switzerland’s quantum ecosystem – from historical milestones and national initiatives to academic leadership, startups, quantum cryptography advances, and the nation’s position in the global quantum race. Brief Historical Overview Switzerland has been at the forefront of quantum research for decades, laying groundwork for today’s “second quantum revolution. ” Key milestones include: 2001: Launch of the first National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) focused on nanoscience, marking a strategic commitment to quantum-related fields. In total, four quantum-focused NCCRs (in nanoscience, quantum photonics, quantum science & technology, and spin qubits) have been established since 2001, each with roughly CHF 50 million in funding. These centers helped attract over 30 top quantum scientists as professors to ETH Zurich, EPFL, University of Basel, University of Geneva and other Swiss institutions. 2007: Geneva’s ID Quantique (a University of Geneva spin-off) deployed the world’s first commercial quantum cryptography system to secure a government election network. This pioneering quantum key distribution (QKD) installation protected vote transmissions in the Geneva state elections, a landmark real-world use of quantum security. 2011: The NCCR Quantum Science and Technology (QSIT) was established, uniting groups across ETH Zurich, EPFL, Geneva, Basel and others under a 12-year research program. During its tenure, Swiss researchers achieved breakthroughs such as a world-record 550 km fiber transmission of quantum-encrypted data (University of Geneva) and the coupling of two different quantum systems... --- ### Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) Quantum Risk Advisory > Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issues "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum" - Published: 2024-02-27 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mas-quantum-advisory/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: ASEAN On February 20, 2024, the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issued Circular No. MAS/TCRS/2024/01, titled "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum". Targeted at CEOs of all financial institutions (FIs), the Advisory addresses the emerging cybersecurity challenges posed by quantum computing advancements. It warns of the potential for quantum computers to compromise widely used encryption and digital signature algorithms, thereby threatening the security of financial transactions and sensitive data managed by FIs. Key Recommendations in the Advisory: FIs are encouraged to stay informed about quantum computing developments and understand their implications for cybersecurity. This includes tracking potential threats and exploring quantum security solutions such as post-quantum cryptography (PQC) and quantum key distribution. FIs should ensure that both their management and third-party vendors are aware of these issues and are prepared to support the transition to quantum-resistant solutions. Financial institutions should work closely with their IT vendors to evaluate and mitigate risks in their IT supply chains related to quantum threats. This involves pushing vendors to develop and eventually supply quantum-resistant solutions as they become available. FIs should maintain an inventory of their cryptographic assets to identify critical assets that need priority migration to quantum-resistant technologies. This involves assessing the vulnerability of cryptographic solutions currently in use and classifying IT and data assets reliant on these technologies. The Advisory encourages FIs to enhance the technical competencies of their staff regarding quantum security solutions and to revise internal policies and procedures accordingly. FIs should develop strategies to mitigate risks for assets that cannot immediately transition to PQC and prepare for scenarios where quantum risks materialize sooner than expected. Where resources allow, FIs should consider conducting proof-of-concept trials with quantum security solutions to gauge the potential operational impacts and tackle any implementation challenges. The advisory is available here. --- ### Quantum Repeaters: The Key to Long-Distance Quantum Comms > Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which qubits can be sent - Published: 2024-02-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-repeaters/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which quantum information (qubits) can be sent without being lost or corrupted​. They tackle a fundamental challenge: photons carrying qubits tend to get absorbed or scatter as they travel through fiber or air, and quantum states can decohere (lose their quantum properties) due to environmental noise. Introduction to Quantum RepeatersWhy Quantum Repeaters Are Critical for Quantum NetworksKey Technologies Behind Quantum RepeatersEntanglement SwappingQuantum MemoriesQuantum Error Correction and Entanglement PurificationComparison with Trusted NodesCurrent Status of Quantum Repeater DevelopmentCybersecurity Implications of Quantum RepeatersEnhanced Security Through Quantum NetworkingPotential Vulnerabilities and Attack VectorsFuture Prospects and ChallengesConclusionIntroduction to Quantum Repeaters Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which quantum information (qubits) can be sent without being lost or corrupted​. They tackle a fundamental challenge: photons carrying qubits tend to get absorbed or scatter as they travel through fiber or air, and quantum states can decohere (lose their quantum properties) due to environmental noise. In a direct fiber link, the signal from a single photon is quickly attenuated – for example, after only tens of kilometers, most photons are lost, and beyond a few hundred kilometers virtually none get through​. Moreover, qubits cannot be amplified like classical signals because any measurement or attempt to copy a quantum state will disturb it (as dictated by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the no-cloning theorem)​. This means the classical solution of using repeaters to boost signal strength fails for quantum data. A new approach is needed to send quantum information across continental distances. Quantum repeaters provide that solution by leveraging entanglement and quantum memory instead of measurement and amplification. In essence, a quantum repeater breaks a long communication distance into shorter segments and creates entangled quantum states across each segment. Through a process called entanglement swapping, these segments can be joined, extending entanglement step-by-step over the full distance without ever measuring the intermediate qubits​. By teleporting quantum states from one segment to the next using entanglement, the fragile quantum information is relayed across the network without directly transmitting a single photon end-to-end​. Throughout this process, quantum memories at... --- ### Quantum Technologies & Quantum Computing in the UK > The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. - Published: 2024-02-12 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-united-kingdom/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: United Kingdom Main The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. The country’s comprehensive approach – supporting research excellence, investing in infrastructure and industry collaboration, and aligning with national goals in security and economy – provides a strong platform for future success. Over the next decade, the UK is expected to deliver tangible quantum innovations: from prototype quantum computers accessible to researchers and industry, to secure quantum communication links safeguarding data, to quantum sensors revealing and navigating the world in fundamentally new ways. IntroductionHistorical Context of UK Quantum ResearchQuantum Computing in the UK: Current State and InitiativesGovernment Strategy and National ProgramsAcademic Centers of Excellence in Quantum ComputingPrivate-Sector Developments and StartupsQuantum Communications and CryptographyQuantum Sensing and Metrology InitiativesThe UK’s Global Position in Quantum Technology: Strengths and ChallengesConclusion and Future OutlookIntroduction Quantum technologies – encompassing quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing – have become a strategic focus for nations worldwide. The United Kingdom has emerged as a front-runner in this “second quantum revolution,” leveraging a strong academic heritage in quantum physics and substantial government investment to build a vibrant quantum ecosystem. Historical Context of UK Quantum Research The UK’s engagement with quantum science dates back to foundational theoretical work and early breakthroughs that set the stage for today’s technologies. In 1985, Oxford physicist David Deutsch published a seminal paper outlining the concept of a universal quantum computer, effectively introducing the idea of quantum computing to the world. A few years later, in 1991, Artur Ekert (then at the University of Oxford) pioneered entanglement-based quantum cryptography, demonstrating that quantum entanglement could be used to distribute encryption keys with security guaranteed by the laws of physics. These early contributions by UK researchers – from quantum computing theory to quantum cryptography – helped trigger a global surge of interest in quantum information science and established the UK as a hub of quantum expertise. Building on this academic foundation, the UK government recognized the transformative potential of quantum technologies and moved early to support their development. In 2013/2014, the government launched the UK National Quantum Technologies Programme (NQTP), one of the world’s first coordinated national quantum initiatives. The NQTP was established to translate cutting-edge quantum research into new products and services, uniting academia, industry, and government around a common mission. The initial phase of NQTP (2014–2019) invested roughly £270 million... --- ### Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction by Nord Quantique > Researchers from Nord Quantique have developed an innovative error correction system that drastically reduces the number of qubits needed... - Published: 2024-02-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/error-correction-nord-quantique/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Canada Sherbrooke, Canada (February 8, 2024) – Nord Quantique, a Canadian quantum computing startup, has announced a breakthrough in quantum error correction using the Gottesman–Kitaev–Preskill (GKP) bosonic code. The company demonstrated, for the first time, an increase of 14% in the coherence time of a single superconducting qubit by correcting its errors without adding any extra physical qubits. This hardware-efficient feat effectively creates a “logical qubit” out of one physical qubit – a milestone achievement on the road from today’s NISQ (Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum) devices to tomorrow’s fully fault-tolerant quantum computers. Industry experts note that useful quantum computing cannot be achieved without error correction, and Nord Quantique’s result marks a significant step toward that goal. By stabilizing a qubit with GKP error-correcting code at the individual qubit level, Nord Quantique slashed the usual overhead required for error correction and moved the field closer to the fault-tolerant era. Nord Quantique's press release here: Nord Quantique demonstrates quantum error correction, first company to make a logical qubit out of a physical qubit, and the research paper Autonomous quantum error correction of Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill states at arXiv preprint. This achievement is described as a “quantum leap” for error correction research. Traditional quantum error correction schemes often require “brute force” redundancy – using dozens or even thousands of physical qubits to encode one logical qubit. In contrast, Nord Quantique’s GKP-based approach corrected errors on a lone qubit, hinting that fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC) might be reachable with only hundreds of physical qubits instead of millions. The ability to lengthen qubit lifetime (coherence) without massive overhead is crucial for bridging the gap between today’s error-prone NISQ processors and the robust, large-scale quantum machines needed for practical applications. By dramatically reducing qubit overhead, Nord Quantique’s breakthrough could shorten the timeline to useful, scalable quantum computing. It represents a... --- ### Origin Quantum’s Wukong: China’s 72-Qubit Processor > In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit... - Published: 2024-01-15 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/origin-quantum-wukong/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit superconducting quantum processor. Launched on January 6, 2024, this third-generation quantum computer is China’s first home-grown superconducting quantum computer and the most advanced of its kind in the country​​. The system – named after the Monkey King Sun Wukong (famed for “72 transformations” in Chinese legend) – symbolizes its powerful capabilities and marks China’s official entry into the era of accessible quantum computing​​. A 72-Qubit Breakthrough and Global DebutWhat Wukong Has Achieved So FarStacking Up Against IBM, Google, and Chinese PeersTechnical Advancements and Why They MatterIndustry and Cybersecurity ImplicationsA New Chapter in Quantum Computing’s Global StoryHefei, China, (Jan 2024) — In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit superconducting quantum processor. Launched on January 6, 2024, this third-generation quantum computer is China’s first home-grown superconducting quantum computer and the most advanced of its kind in the country​​. The system – named after the Monkey King Sun Wukong (famed for “72 transformations” in Chinese legend) – symbolizes its powerful capabilities and marks China’s official entry into the era of accessible quantum computing​​. A 72-Qubit Breakthrough and Global Debut Wukong is powered by a 72-qubit superconducting chip dubbed the “Wukong chip,” fabricated on China’s first dedicated quantum chip production line​. Uniquely, the chip contains 198 physical qubits in total: 72 functional qubits plus 126 additional coupler qubits that enhance connectivity​. This design echoes approaches by leading labs (Google and IBM also employ coupler circuits) and is intended to maintain control over interactions as the qubit count rises. Key performance metrics like qubit coherence times and readout fidelity are at internationally competitive levels, according to the team​. The Wukong system is housed in a dilution refrigerator operating near absolute zero, with custom high-density cryogenic interconnects to support its hundreds of qubits​. Beyond the impressive qubit count, Wukong introduced new engineering breakthroughs. It is integrated with Origin’s third-generation quantum control system (“Tianji”), enabling the first-ever automated batch testing of quantum chips in China​. This automation accelerated chip calibration and validation, boosting the machine’s overall runtime efficiency by dozens of times​. In practice, that means faster turn-around in tuning qubits and more stable performance – critical steps toward scaling up... --- ### What is Entanglement-as-a-Service (EaaS)? > Entanglement-as-a-Service (EAAS) is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly... - Published: 2024-01-10 - Modified: 2025-03-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-service-eaas/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Entanglement-as-a-Service is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly rooted in quantum physics, its current development is accelerating through global research efforts, and its promise has caught the attention of the telecommunications industry and beyond. While challenges remain in scaling and integration, the trajectory is clear: EaaS and quantum networks will likely be as transformative in the 21st century as the internet was in the 20th, opening new frontiers in secure communication, computing, and sensing. IntroductionTechnical FoundationsQuantum Entanglement and Quantum Networking BasicsHow EaaS Is ImplementedCurrent Research & Status of EaaSTelecommunications & Infrastructure IntegrationCommercialization and Use CasesFuture Outlook for EaaSIntroduction Entanglement-as-a-Service (EaaS) refers to the on-demand delivery of quantum entanglement over a network, enabling distant users or devices to share entangled qubit pairs as a resource. In essence, a quantum network provider supplies entangled quantum states to clients as a service, analogous to how classical networks provide data connectivity . This report explores the foundations of EaaS, current research and implementations, its integration into telecommunications infrastructure, emerging commercial use cases, and the future outlook for this cutting-edge paradigm. Technical Foundations Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Networking Basics Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where two or more particles become correlated in such a way that their quantum states are interdependent, no matter the distance between them. Measuring one entangled particle instantly influences the state of its partner, a counter-intuitive effect that Einstein famously dubbed “spooky action at a distance. ” These non-classical correlations have no equivalent in classical communication and form the bedrock of quantum information science. In a quantum network, entanglement is the fundamental service that links distant nodes. Instead of merely sending bits, a quantum network distributes entangled qubits (often photons) between nodes. Once two nodes share an entangled pair (often called a Bell pair), they can perform quantum communication protocols. For example, by using entangled qubits and classical messages, one can achieve quantum teleportation – transferring a quantum state from one node to another without sending the physical particle itself. Teleportation doesn’t move matter, but it uses shared entanglement and a few classical bits to transmit the state of a qubit instantly across the network. This ability to transmit qubit states forms the basis of quantum communications and distributed quantum computing. Achieving entanglement distribution over... --- ### Marin's Statement on AI Risks > The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded, non-aligned, recursive self-improvement and disseminating new capabilities to other AIs is a concern - Published: 2024-01-01 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/marin-statement-on-ai-risk/ - Categories: Quantum AI - Tags: featured The rapid development of AI brings both extraordinary potential and unprecedented risks. AI systems are increasingly demonstrating emergent behaviors, and in some cases, are even capable of self-improvement. This advancement, while remarkable, raises critical questions about our ability to control and understand these systems fully. The rapid development of AI brings both extraordinary potential and unprecedented risks. AI systems are increasingly demonstrating emergent behaviors, and in some cases, are even capable of self-improvement. This advancement, while remarkable, raises critical questions about our ability to control and understand these systems fully. In this article I aim to present my own statement on AI risk, drawing inspiration from the Statement on AI Risk from the Center for AI Safety, a statement endorsed by leading AI scientists and other notable AI figures. I will then try to explain it. I aim to dissect the reality of AI risks without veering into sensationalism. This discussion is not about fear-mongering; it is yet another call to action for a managed and responsible approach to AI development. I also need to highlight that even though the statement is focused on the existential risk posed by AI, that doesn't mean we can ignore more immediate and more likely AI risks such as proliferation of disinformation, challenges to election integrity, dark AI in general, threats to user safety, mass job losses, and other pressing societal concerns that AI systems can exacerbate in the short term. Here's how I'd summarize my views on AI risks:AI systems today are exhibiting unpredictable emergent behaviour and devising novel methods to achieve objectives. Self-improving AI models are already a reality. We currently have no means to discern if an AI has gained consciousness and its own motives. We also have no methods or tools available to guarantee that complex AI-based autonomous systems will continuously operate in alignment with human well-being. These nondeterministic AI systems are increasingly being used in high-stakes environments such as management of critical infrastructure, (dis)information dissemination, or operation of autonomous weapons. There’s nothing sensationalist in any of these statements. The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded,... --- ### India’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives > India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining... - Published: 2023-12-29 - Modified: 2025-03-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-india/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: India Main India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining its rich legacy in fundamental physics with modern innovation frameworks to advance quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. The coming years are poised to witness India transitioning from prototyping to implementation: quantum computers solving domain-specific problems, quantum-encrypted channels protecting national data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that drive both science and industry. Quantum Computing Advancements in IndiaProgress in Quantum Communications and CryptographyDevelopments in Quantum Sensing and MetrologyIndia’s Global Position in Quantum TechnologyConclusion and Forward Outlook India’s engagement with quantum science has roots in the early 20th century. A seminal contribution came from Satyendra Nath Bose, whose 1924 paper on quantum statistics laid the foundation for Bose-Einstein statistics – a cornerstone of quantum mechanics. In the decades that followed, Indian physicists made theoretical strides, but dedicated quantum technology R&D infrastructure began taking shape only in recent times. A modern milestone was the work of Indian-American scientist Lov Grover, who in 1996 devised Grover’s algorithm – the second major quantum computing algorithm, highlighting India’s intellectual link to this emerging field. By the 2000s, research groups in institutes like TIFR and IISc were exploring quantum computation (e. g. using NMR techniques), and by the 2010s India started formal programs to nurture quantum technologies. In 2018, the government launched the Quantum-Enabled Science and Technology (QuEST) program, the country’s first coordinated quantum research initiative, funding 51 projects across themes like photonic quantum computing, ion-trap devices, and superconducting qubits. These efforts, though modest in scale, seeded a domestic quantum research ecosystem and trained a generation of researchers, setting the stage for larger national missions. Quantum Computing Advancements in India India’s quantum computing landscape has significantly accelerated in recent years through national missions, academic research, and industry partnerships. A pivotal step was the announcement of a National Mission on Quantum Technologies & Applications (NM-QTA) in 2020 with a proposed outlay of ₹8,000 crore (~$1 billion). This was followed by the establishment of a dedicated quantum hub: the I-Hub Quantum Technology Foundation (QTF) at IISER Pune in 2020, under the National Cyber-Physical Systems program. With a budget of ₹170 crore, I-Hub QTF’s flagship projects include developing an ion-trap based quantum... --- ### IBM Unveils Next-Gen 133-Qubit ‘Heron’ Quantum Processor > IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances.... - Published: 2023-12-28 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-133-qubit-heron-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances. The IBM Quantum Heron chip was unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023 as the company’s latest milestone in its quantum computing roadmap. IBM touts Heron as a next-generation processor that delivers significantly improved performance and reliability compared to its predecessors. This 133-qubit device introduces new technologies aimed at boosting quantum computation capability while laying the groundwork for IBM’s future quantum systems. Key Features of the Heron ChipWhy Heron Is a Significant MilestoneHow Heron Differs from IBM’s Earlier Chips (Eagle and Falcon)Context in IBM’s Quantum RoadmapYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2024) - IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances. The IBM Quantum Heron chip was unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023 as the company’s latest milestone in its quantum computing roadmap. IBM touts Heron as a next-generation processor that delivers significantly improved performance and reliability compared to its predecessors. This 133-qubit device introduces new technologies aimed at boosting quantum computation capability while laying the groundwork for IBM’s future quantum systems. Key Features of the Heron Chip 133 Superconducting Qubits: Heron contains 133 qubits, slightly more than IBM’s previous 127-qubit flagship (Eagle) and built using fixed-frequency transmon qubits. It surpasses the 100-qubit scale that IBM first achieved in 2021 with Eagle, marking another step in qubit count while maintaining stability. Tunable Coupler Architecture: A standout innovation in Heron is the use of tunable couplers between qubits. Unlike earlier processors with static coupling, Heron’s couplers can be adjusted to control interactions, which virtually eliminates cross-talk (undesired interference between neighboring qubits). This means qubits can be better isolated when not actively interacting, leading to cleaner operations. Improved Fidelity and Gate Performance: Thanks to its new architecture, Heron achieves a 3–5× improvement in overall device performance relative to IBM’s 127-qubit Eagle processor. In practical terms, IBM reports Heron can execute roughly 1,800 quantum gates within a single coherence cycle, about four times the number of gate operations Eagle could run in the same period. This makes Heron IBM’s lowest-error, highest-performing processor to date, significantly reducing error rates and increasing the complexity of circuits that can be run reliably. Foundation for Future... --- ### 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published > 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - Published: 2023-12-22 - Modified: 2024-05-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-timeline-report/ - Categories: Industry News Dr. Michele Mosca, a prominent figure in the field of quantum computing and cryptography, and one of the most prominent voices advocating for active preparation of industries and governments for the quantum era regularly publishes a survey of global quantum computing experts on their Q-Day predictions. The latest report, "The 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report," was just published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing, focusing on its potential impact on cybersecurity. The report gathers insights from 37 global experts in quantum computing. Expert Opinions on Timeline: 5 Years: Most experts see the likelihood of a quantum computer breaking RSA-2048 as very low. 10 Years: The likelihood increases but remains uncertain. 15-20 Years: A majority of experts estimate a higher likelihood, with significant confidence that a cryptographically-relevant quantum computer will be developed. 30 Years: Nearly all experts believe the threat will be realized. The report also highlights a few key upcoming milestones such as advancements in error correction and scalable quantum systems. And finally, the surveyed experts highlight the importance of continuous investment and avoiding overhyping current capabilities. For more details, you can read the full report here. --- ### IBM Unveils Condor: 1,121‑Qubit Quantum Processor > IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. - Published: 2023-12-11 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-condor/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023, Condor marks the first quantum chip to surpass 1,000 qubits, a milestone many in the field have eyed as a crucial step toward practical quantum computing. The new processor, built on IBM’s heavy-hexagonal qubit architecture and cross-resonance gate technology, pushes the boundaries of scale in quantum hardware. With Condor, IBM more than doubles its previous qubit count record and sets a new high-water mark in the global race for quantum computing power. Pushing the Frontier: Condor vs. Previous Quantum ProcessorsTechnical Breakthroughs Enabling 1,121 QubitsToward Useful Quantum Computing – Why Condor MattersBroader Implications: A Step Toward Quantum Advantage and New ChallengesConclusionYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Dec 2023) – IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023, Condor marks the first quantum chip to surpass 1,000 qubits, a milestone many in the field have eyed as a crucial step toward practical quantum computing. The new processor, built on IBM’s heavy-hexagonal qubit architecture and cross-resonance gate technology, pushes the boundaries of scale in quantum hardware. With Condor, IBM more than doubles its previous qubit count record and sets a new high-water mark in the global race for quantum computing power. This 1,121-qubit chip isn’t just a numbers game – it represents significant engineering breakthroughs. IBM reports Condor achieved a 50% increase in qubit density over prior designs, thanks to advances in fabrication and packaging. Fitting over a thousand superconducting qubits on a single slice of silicon required innovative 3D chip packaging and a mile of high-density cryogenic wiring inside the refrigerator. Despite its unprecedented scale, Condor’s performance (in terms of coherence times and gate fidelity) is said to be on par with its 433-qubit predecessor, Osprey, indicating that IBM managed to grow the processor’s size without a loss in quality. This feat – scaling up qubit count while maintaining performance – is viewed as an important “innovation milestone” for the industry. Pushing the Frontier: Condor vs. Previous Quantum Processors Condor’s debut comes on the heels of steady progress in superconducting quantum computing. In the past few years, IBM and others have been in a “qubit arms race,” steadily increasing qubit counts on a single chip. Condor... --- ### UK NCS Issues Guidance on Preparing for PQC > The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography," - Published: 2023-11-06 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-ncsc-post-quantum-cryptography/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography," which provides comprehensive guidance to help organisations and providers of Critical National Infrastructure (CNI) prepare for the migration to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This publication is a follow-up to the NCSC’s 2020 report on the current state of quantum mitigation and aims to address the emerging challenges in cryptographic security in the quantum era. The UK National Cyber Security Center (NCSC) has released a new whitepaper, titled "Next Steps: Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography". This paper offers anticipatory insights into the profound impact of quantum computing on the field of cryptography and how businesses can prepare themselves.  The whitepaper examines quantum computing and suggests a pragmatic approach to address it. Summary from the whitepaper: Most PKC algorithms in use today will be vulnerable to a CRQC. The best mitigation against the threat of quantum computers to traditional PKC is PQC. The security of symmetric cryptography is not significantly impacted by quantum computers, and existing symmetric algorithms with appropriate key sizes can continue to be used. PQC upgrades can be planned to take place within usual technology refresh cycles. ML-KEM (Kyber) and ML-DSA (Dilithium) are algorithms selected for standardisation by NIST that are suitable for general purpose use. All proposed parameter sets provide an acceptable level of security for personal, enterprise and OFFICIAL-tier government information. The NCSC recommends ML-KEM-768 and ML-DSA-65 as providing appropriate levels of security and efficiency for most use cases. The NCSC strongly advises that operational systems should only use implementations based on final standards. If a PQ/T hybrid scheme is chosen, the NCSC recommends it is used as an interim measure that allows a straightforward migration to PQC-only in the future. For detailed information and to access the full white paper,... --- ### Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures > Why multiple quantum computing paradigms? The goal is the same – realize a scalable, universal quantum computer – but the approaches differ... - Published: 2023-11-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/taxonomy-paradigms/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms - Tags: featured, popular Over the past few decades, researchers have devised multiple quantum computing paradigms – different models and physical implementations of quantum computers – each addressing these challenges in unique ways. In essence, there is no single “quantum computer” design; instead, there are many parallel approaches, each with its own principles, trade-offs, and technological hurdles. IntroductionMain Quantum Computing Paradigms and ArchitecturesGate-Based Quantum ComputingSuperconducting QubitsTrapped-Ion QubitsPhotonic Quantum ComputingNeutral Atom Quantum Computing (Rydberg Qubits)Silicon-Based Qubits (Quantum Dots & Donors in Silicon)Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors and Defects (NV Centers, Quantum Dots in III-V Materials)Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC)Photonic Cluster-State ComputingIon Trap/Neutral Atom Implementations of MBQCTopological Quantum ComputingMajorana QubitsFibonacci AnyonsQuantum Annealing and Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)Quantum Annealing (QA)Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)Exotic and Emerging ApproachesQuantum Cellular AutomataBiological Quantum ComputingDNA-Based Quantum Information ProcessingDissipative Quantum ComputingAdiabatic Topological Quantum ComputingBoson Sampling (Gaussian and Non-Gaussian)Quantum WalkNeuromorphic Quantum ComputingHolonomic (Geometric Phase) Quantum ComputingTime Crystals and Their Potential Use in Quantum ComputationOne-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1)Quantum Annealing + Digital Boost ("Bang-Bang Annealing")Photonic Continuous-Variable (CV) ComputingQuantum LDPC and Cluster StatesQuantum Cellular Automata in Living CellsHybrid Quantum Computing ArchitecturesSummaryCybersecurity ImplicationsThreat to current cryptographyWhich paradigm is likely to get there first? Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Each paradigm’s effect on PQCSide-channel and other security aspectsQuantum for defenseWhat should cybersecurity professionals doWhich paradigms more likely in adversaries’ handsConclusion for cybersecurity expertsConclusionSummary of Main ParadigmsWhich approach will dominate? Practical OutlookImplications for society and industryFinal thoughtsIntroduction Quantum computing is a new paradigm of computing that exploits principles of quantum mechanics – superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference – to perform certain calculations far more efficiently than classical computers. Instead of binary bits, quantum computers use qubits which can exist in superpositions of 0 and 1. This allows quantum computers to process a vast space of possible states in parallel. However, harnessing this power is exceptionally challenging due to issues like decoherence (loss of quantum state) and noise. Over the past few decades, researchers have devised multiple quantum computing paradigms – different models and physical implementations of quantum computers – each addressing these challenges in unique ways. In essence, there is no single “quantum computer” design; instead, there are many parallel approaches, each with its own principles, trade-offs, and... --- ### 99.5% Fidelity in Neutral-Atom Qubits Achieved > A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99.5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom... - Published: 2023-10-30 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quera-neutral-atom/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99. 5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom qubits operating simultaneously. This milestone represents a crucial step towards the practical application of quantum computing in commercial environments. The collaborative research signifies a major leap forward in the quest for reliable quantum information processing. Detailed findings from this research are available in a paper published on ArXiv. Neutral atom arrays have recently gained recognition as a promising quantum computing platform, thanks to their capability for coherent control over large numbers of qubits and their flexible, dynamically reconfigurable architecture. Achieving high-fidelity operations is essential for surpassing quantum error-correcting thresholds, a prerequisite for the effective deployment of quantum technologies. For more detailed insights, the complete research paper is accessible on ArXiv: High-fidelity parallel entangling gates on a neutral atom quantum computer. --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic Cluster-State QC > Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons that have been... - Published: 2023-10-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-cluster-state/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons (particles of light) that have been prepared in a highly entangled state known as a cluster state. It falls under the paradigm of measurement-based quantum computing (MBQC), often called the one-way quantum computer. In this scheme, a large entangled resource state (the photonic cluster state) is generated first, and then the computation is carried out by performing a sequence of single-qubit measurements on the individual photons. What It IsHow It Differs From Photonic Quantum ComputingKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsGate-Based (Circuit) Model vs. One-Way (Cluster) ModelAdiabatic/Annealing Model vs. One-Way ModelCurrent Development StatusScaling Up Cluster StatesIntegrated Photonics and On-Chip ProcessorsApproaches of Major Industry PlayersAdvantagesRoom-Temperature OperationLow Decoherence and High StabilityNatural Networking and DistributionUltra-Fast Operations and ParallelismScalability via Modular and Mass-Manufacturable ComponentsCompatibility with Fault-Tolerant SchemesDisadvantagesProbabilistic Entanglement and Photon SourcesPhoton LossComplexity of Large-Scale Cluster CreationDetection and Feedforward LatencyImpact on CybersecurityEnhancing Quantum Cryptography (QKD and beyond)Threat to Classical CryptographyPost-Quantum and Quantum-Resistant MeasuresBlind Quantum Computing (Secure Delegation)Security of the Quantum Computer ItselfFuture OutlookTimeline to a Fault-Tolerant Photonic Quantum ComputerExpected Breakthroughs RequiredCommercial Viability and ApplicationsRole in Quantum Networks and Hybrid Architectures(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons (particles of light) that have been prepared in a highly entangled state known as a cluster state. It falls under the paradigm of measurement-based quantum computing (MBQC), often called the one-way quantum computer​. In this scheme, a large entangled resource state (the photonic cluster state) is generated first, and then the computation is carried out by performing a sequence of single-qubit measurements on the individual photons. The cluster state’s entanglement serves as the “fuel” for the computation, and it is gradually consumed as measurements proceed – hence the name “one-way” (the entangled resource is used up and cannot be reused)​. Each photon is measured in a particular basis chosen according to the algorithm’s needs, and those measurements drive the quantum computation. This approach differs fundamentally from the traditional gate-based model of quantum computing. In a gate-based (circuit) model, one applies a series of unitary quantum logic gates (such as CNOTs, Hadamards, etc. ) directly to the qubits... --- ### Over 1,000 Controllable Atomic Qubits Achieved > Over 1,000 controllable atomic qubits in one single plane achieved by researchers from TU Darmstadt in Germany. As published in arXiv for now... - Published: 2023-10-28 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/1000-atomic-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe In a research article just published on the arXiv preprint server the research team from TU Darmstadt in Germany reports on the world’s first successful experiment to realise a quantum-processing architecture that contains more than 1,000 atomic qubits in one single plane. The researchers used a novel method of “quantum bit supercharging” that enabled researchers to overcome the limitations imposed by the performance of lasers on the number of usable qubits. By implementing this method, 1305 single-atom qubits were successfully loaded into a quantum array with 3,000 trap sites and reassembled into defect-free target structures containing up to 441 qubits. Utilizing several laser sources in parallel, this approach addressed what was previously considered to be an insurmountable technological barriers. The paper further outlines how increasing the number of laser sources could enable the use of 10,000 qubits and beyond in the coming years. For many applications, 1,000 qubits is regarded as the threshold value at which the efficiency boost promised by quantum computers can be demonstrated, i. e. the threshold to achieving quantum supremacy. The full paper is available on the arXiv preprint server here: https://arxiv. org/abs/2310. 09191 --- ### Quantum Memories in Quantum Networking and Computing > Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties... - Published: 2023-10-24 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-memories/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties. In essence, a quantum memory is the quantum-mechanical analog of classical computer memory or RAM​. Introduction to Quantum MemoriesWhy Quantum Memories are EssentialChallenges in Quantum MemoryTypes of Quantum Memory TechnologiesTrapped Ion and Atomic Ensemble MemoriesSolid-State Quantum MemoriesHybrid ApproachesMathematical Models and EquationsCurrent Research and DevelopmentsImplications for Quantum Networks and CybersecurityFuture Outlook and Open QuestionsIntroduction to Quantum Memories Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties. In essence, a quantum memory is the quantum-mechanical analog of classical computer memory or RAM​. However, unlike a classical memory which holds definite binary values (0 or 1), a quantum memory preserves a quantum state – which can be a superposition of 0 and 1 at the same time​. This means the qubit stored in memory can exist in multiple states simultaneously (a property known as quantum superposition), or even be entangled with other qubits, until a measurement is made. The key requirement is that the memory maintain quantum coherence, i. e. the delicate phase relationships of the state, for as long as needed without decoherence (loss of quantum information). Maintaining coherence in a memory is challenging because any interaction with the environment can cause decoherence, collapsing the superposition. A good quantum memory isolates the qubit from noise, so the quantum information remains intact over time​. In an ideal scenario, a quantum memory would store qubits indefinitely without decoherence, functioning much like an error-free hard drive for quantum states. In practice, current quantum memories are far more fragile and short-lived than classical storage – they are “fragile and error-prone” compared to conventional memory​. Reading or measuring the stored qubit will disturb it (due to the observer effect), so the data can typically only be read out once before the quantum state collapses to a classical result​. Despite these challenges, quantum memories are crucial components in quantum computers and communication systems,... --- ### Quantum LiDAR vs. Quantum Radar > Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology... - Published: 2023-10-18 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-lidar-quantum-radar/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology and likely timelines: expect to hear more about quantum LiDAR in commercial products soon, while quantum radar will continue to be a strategic project for defense and require further breakthroughs to reach its full promise. Both, however, underscore the transformative power of quantum technology. As these sensors evolve, they could redefine how we perceive the world, achieving what was once thought impossible – like spotting the “invisible” stealth plane, or navigating a pitch-black, foggy road with the same confidence as a clear day. IntroductionWhat is Quantum LiDAR? Key Differences Between Quantum Radar and Quantum LiDARUse Cases and Market ApplicationsWho is Leading the Research and Development? Challenges and Feasibility of DeploymentConclusion and Future OutlookIntroduction Not long ago, I wrote about the promise of quantum radar, a topic that caught my interest due to its military applications and my defense technology background. Quantum radar has generated buzz for its potential to detect stealth aircraft and resist jamming – naturally drawing attention from defense circles. However, as exciting as it sounds, many readers (and even some tech marketers) have been left confused about how quantum radar differs from quantum LiDAR. Are they the same thing under different names, or fundamentally different technologies? In reality, while both leverage quantum physics to improve detection, they operate on different principles and frequency regimes, leading to distinct strengths and use cases. So let me try and clear up the confusion. What is Quantum LiDAR? Imagine a pair of photons (light particles) that are mysteriously connected – a change to one is instantly reflected in the other. This is the spooky phenomenon of quantum entanglement, and it’s at the heart of quantum LiDAR. In a quantum LiDAR system, entangled or other non-classical states of light (like squeezed light) are used to probe the environment. Conceptually, it works a bit like having two linked flashlights: you send one flashlight beam out toward a target (this is the “signal” photon), while you keep its entangled twin (the “idler” photon) at your receiver. When the signal photon hits an object and bounces back, it will be carrying only a very tiny, noisy reflection – so faint it might be impossible to distinguish from background noise using normal methods. But because that returning photon is still quantum-correlated with its twin, the system can compare notes... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Ion Trap and Neutral Atom MBQC > Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms... - Published: 2023-10-18 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/ion-trap-neutral-atom-mbqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms – to realize this model. In a trapped-ion MBQC, a string of ions (charged atoms) is confined and entangled via electromagnetic fields and laser pulses. The ions’ internal states serve as qubits that can be entangled pairwise or globally using multi-ion gate operations, preparing a cluster state. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksMechanics of MBQC in Ion TrapsMechanics in Neutral Atom SystemsHow measurements drive computationComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC) – often called the one-way quantum computer – is a model of quantum computation where a pre-prepared entangled resource state is consumed by sequential measurements to perform a computation​. Instead of applying a series of unitary logic gates as in the traditional circuit model, MBQC begins by creating a highly entangled cluster state (a specific multi-qubit entangled state, usually a lattice or graph of qubits)​. Computation proceeds by performing single-qubit measurements on the cluster; these measurements (in chosen bases) drive the quantum logic, with the entanglement causing the measurement outcomes to enact effective gate operations on the remaining unmeasured qubits​. Importantly, the order and basis of later measurements can depend on the results of earlier ones (a process called feed-forward), ensuring that despite the inherent randomness of quantum measurement, the overall computation yields a deterministic result​​. The cluster state is “used up” by these measurements – hence one-way, since qubits cannot be reused after measurement​. Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms – to realize this model. In a trapped-ion MBQC, a string of ions (charged atoms) is confined and entangled via electromagnetic fields and laser pulses. The ions’ internal states serve as qubits that can be entangled pairwise or globally using multi-ion gate operations, preparing a cluster state. The computation then unfolds by measuring individual ions’ states one by one with lasers and collecting fluorescence, with each measurement’s basis and timing chosen according to previous outcomes​. In a... --- ### Jiuzhang 3.0: China’s Photonic Quantum Computer > Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons... - Published: 2023-10-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-3/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons in a boson sampling experiment​. Unveiled in October 2023 by a team led by renowned physicist Pan Jianwei, Jiuzhang 3.0 pushes the boundaries of photonic quantum computing with a demonstration that is 10 quadrillion times faster at solving a Gaussian boson sampling problem than the fastest classical supercomputers​. This milestone firmly advances the frontier of quantum computational advantage in photonics, outpacing both the team’s earlier machines and rival systems worldwide. A 255-Photon Quantum Advantage DemonstrationFrom Jiuzhang 1. 0 to 3. 0: What’s New and How It ComparesWhy It Matters in the Quantum Computing LandscapeChinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3. 0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons in a boson sampling experiment​. Unveiled in October 2023 by a team led by renowned physicist Pan Jianwei, Jiuzhang 3. 0 pushes the boundaries of photonic quantum computing with a demonstration that is 10 quadrillion times faster at solving a Gaussian boson sampling problem than the fastest classical supercomputers​. Pre-print of the related paper is here: "Gaussian Boson Sampling with Pseudo-Photon-Number Resolving Detectors and Quantum Computational Advantage". This milestone firmly advances the frontier of quantum computational advantage in photonics, outpacing both the team’s earlier machines and rival systems worldwide. A 255-Photon Quantum Advantage Demonstration Boson sampling – specifically Gaussian boson sampling (GBS) – was the chosen benchmark task for Jiuzhang 3. 0’s feat. GBS is a specialized but classically intractable problem often used to showcase quantum speedups​. In essence, it involves sending many photons through a complex interferometer and sampling the outcome distribution, a task that becomes exponentially harder as more photons are involved. Jiuzhang 3. 0 registered 255 photon detection events, an unprecedented scale for this experiment​. Each additional photon roughly doubles the complexity of boson sampling, so moving from previous 113-photon tests to 255 photons represents an enormous leap in computational challenge​. By one estimate, generating a single output sample from Jiuzhang 3. 0’s distribution on the world’s top supercomputer (Frontier) would take around 600 years, whereas Jiuzhang 3. 0 produces that sample in about 1. 2 microseconds​. In fact, the most complex outputs from Jiuzhang 3. 0 would take on the order of 1010 years on Frontier to simulate exactly​ – effectively forever... --- ### Quantum Computing Breakthrough Achieved with Neutral-Atoms > Researchers from Harvard, MIT and QuEra have achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by successfully implementing... - Published: 2023-10-12 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/neutral-atom-breakthrough/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Researchers from Harvard, MIT and QuEra have achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by successfully implementing high-fidelity parallel entangling gates on a neutral-atom quantum computer. This advancement, detailed in a recent study published in Nature, allows for the operation of two-qubit controlled phase gates with a remarkable 99. 5% fidelity on up to 60 atoms simultaneously. This surpasses the threshold required for practical quantum error correction, paving the way for more robust and scalable quantum computing systems. The technology utilizes a sophisticated method of optimal control along with improvements in atom cooling and excitation, setting a new standard in the field of quantum information processing. --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Energy & Utilities > Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation... - Published: 2023-10-11 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-energy-utilities/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Energy & Utilities Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation at scales classical computers cannot handle. For example, routing power through a grid with thousands of control decisions or modeling the chemistry inside a battery are tasks that overwhelm today’s fastest supercomputers. Quantum computers leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to examine a vast number of configurations simultaneously, potentially delivering solutions faster or more accurately. The result could be more efficient energy distribution, smarter storage solutions, and accelerated innovation in clean energy technology. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Optimization for Power GridsEnergy Storage & Battery InnovationQuantum Computing for Renewable EnergyQuantum-Assisted Energy Market ForecastingCarbon Capture & Climate SolutionsQuantum Cryptography in Energy SecurityThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction The energy and utilities sector is grappling with unprecedented complexity—from integrating variable renewable power to managing sprawling smart grids. Classical computing, which has served the industry for decades, is now straining to meet these demands​. In contrast, quantum computing offers a fundamentally new approach, harnessing quantum bits (qubits) that can explore countless possibilities in parallel. This paradigm shift holds immense promise for solving “unsolvable” problems in energy, from optimizing grid operations to simulating novel materials that boost efficiency. In short, quantum computing’s ability to handle exponential complexity can unlock insights and optimizations beyond classical limits, a potential game-changer for power and utilities​. Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation at scales classical computers cannot handle. For example, routing power through a grid with thousands of control decisions or modeling the chemistry inside a battery are tasks that overwhelm today’s fastest supercomputers. Quantum computers leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to examine a vast number of configurations simultaneously, potentially delivering solutions faster or more accurately. The result could be more efficient energy distribution, smarter storage solutions, and accelerated innovation in clean energy technology. As one industry expert put it, quantum computing isn’t just about raw speed—it’s about tackling problems that were previously intractable, making it a critical tool for the future of energy and utilities. Current Developments Recent years have seen a surge of research initiatives and industry investments at the intersection of quantum computing and energy. Major energy companies and utilities are partnering with quantum tech firms and labs to explore practical use... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Superconducting Qubits > Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction... - Published: 2023-10-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/superconducting-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction – a sandwich of two superconductors separated by a thin insulator which allows tunneling of Cooper pairs. When cooled to extremely low temperatures (≈10–20 millikelvin), these circuits exhibit quantized energy levels that can serve as the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states of a qubit​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksJosephson Junctions as Non-Linear ElementsSuperconducting Qubit TypesCoupling Mechanisms and Microwave ResonatorsCoherence Times and Noise MitigationGate FidelitiesComparison to Other ParadigmsSuperconducting vs. Trapped IonsSuperconducting vs. Photonic QubitsSuperconducting vs. Silicon Spin QubitsCurrent Development StatusQubit Count and Hardware RoadmapsQuantum Volume and PerformanceAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityIndustry Use CasesBroader Technological ImpactsFuture OutlookConclusion(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Superconducting qubits are quantum bits implemented using superconducting electrical circuits cooled to extremely low temperatures. They behave as artificial atoms with quantized energy levels: the two lowest energy states (ground and first excited state) serve as the qubit’s 0 and 1 states​​. These circuits often consist of an inductor and capacitor (an LC oscillator) made from superconducting materials (like aluminum, niobium, or tantalum) connected by a Josephson junction – a non-linear element that introduces anharmonicity. The anharmonic energy spectrum is crucial, as it ensures only two levels act as the qubit (preventing unintended excitation of higher levels). Superconductivity (achieved by cooling devices to ~10 mK in dilution refrigerators) grants zero electrical resistance, so currents can flow without dissipating energy​​. This allows quantum coherence to be preserved in the circuit, a fundamental requirement for quantum computing. Superconducting qubits are a leading approach in modern quantum computing. Tech giants and research labs worldwide have adopted this platform – e. g. IBM, Google, Rigetti, and others have built quantum chips using superconducting qubits​. The approach has rapidly progressed from a few qubits to tens of qubits over the past two decades. In 2019, Google’s 53-qubit superconducting processor famously achieved quantum supremacy, performing in 200 seconds a task that was estimated to take 10,000 years on a classical supercomputer​. This milestone highlighted the relevance of superconducting qubits: they have enabled some of the largest quantum processors to... --- ### Quantum Use Cases in Pharma & Biotech > Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharma and biotech industries. Its ability to tackle problems... - Published: 2023-10-09 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-use-cases-pharma-biotech/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharmaceuticals and biotechnology industries. Its ability to tackle problems of staggering complexity – whether simulating the quantum behavior of drug molecules, analyzing massive genomic datasets for personalized medicine, or optimizing the myriad decisions in R&D and supply chains – offers a new computational paradigm for an innovation-hungry sector. We have seen that even in its nascent state, quantum technology is already making waves: early experiments have accelerated molecular discovery, quantum sensors are breaking new ground in biomedical imaging​, and companies big and small are gearing up through partnerships and pilot projects to be part of this coming revolution​​. IntroductionCurrent Developments Industry-Specific Use Cases Drug Discovery and Molecular Simulations Personalized Medicine and Genomic Analysis Quantum-Enhanced AI and Machine Learning for Healthcare Optimization of Clinical Trials and Supply Chain Logistics Quantum Sensing for Bioimaging and Diagnostics The Arrival of Universal Quantum Computing Sector Preparation & Responses Challenges and Risks Conclusion Introduction ​Quantum computing harnesses the counterintuitive principles of quantum mechanics to process information in ways that classical computers cannot. Unlike classical bits, quantum bits (qubits) can exist in superposition (multiple states at once) and become entangled, allowing quantum computers to evaluate many possibilities simultaneously. This capability gives quantum computers the potential to solve complex, multi-variable problems exponentially faster than conventional machines​. In the pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sectors – where discovery and innovation often hinge on untangling extremely complex molecular interactions and massive biological datasets – such computing power is a game-changer. Pharma companies spend up to 15% of sales on R&D​, yet many biological problems (from protein folding to drug-target interactions) are so complex that classical algorithms struggle with accuracy and speed​. Quantum computing promises to push past those limits, enabling more precise simulations and data analyses that could revolutionize drug development and healthcare delivery. Industry estimates suggest the life sciences and chemistry fields alone could reap over $1. 3 trillion in value by 2035 from quantum technologies​, underscoring why quantum computing is capturing the imagination of pharmaceutical and biotech leaders worldwide. Quantum computing matters for pharma and biotech because at its core, medicine is an information science dealing with inherently quantum systems. Molecules, proteins, and biochemical reactions operate under quantum physics – and thus a quantum computer can, in principle, model these with far greater fidelity​. This means researchers might simulate drug molecules and their behavior in the body with unprecedented accuracy, potentially predicting efficacy and side effects before a lab experiment is ever done. Beyond drug chemistry, quantum computers’... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Holonomic (Geometric Phase) QC > Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum - Published: 2023-10-06 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/holonomic-geometric-phase/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum logic operations. In a holonomic gate, the quantum state is manipulated by adiabatically (or sometimes non-adiabatically) moving the system’s parameters along a closed loop in parameter space, causing the state to acquire a geometric phase or holonomy. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksGeometric Phases and HolonomiesPhysical Implementations in Different Qubit SystemsComparison to Other ParadigmsHolonomic vs. Standard Gate Model (Circuit Model)Holonomic vs. Adiabatic Quantum ComputingHolonomic vs. Topological Quantum ComputingCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Holonomic Quantum ComputingDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum logic operations. In a holonomic gate, the quantum state is manipulated by adiabatically (or sometimes non-adiabatically) moving the system’s parameters along a closed loop in parameter space, causing the state to acquire a geometric phase or holonomy. This phase depends only on the path taken in the parameter space—not on the speed or duration of traversal—so the resulting operation is largely determined by the geometry of the evolution rather than its timing​. In essence, the idea is to encode qubit states in certain subspaces (often degenerate energy levels) and implement quantum gates by looping the system through configurations such that when it returns to the starting point, the qubit state has undergone a desired unitary transformation (the holonomy). This is fundamentally different from conventional quantum gates that rely on dynamic evolution (accumulating ordinary time-dependent phase from applied pulses)​. The geometric phase at the heart of holonomic computing was first identified by Sir Michael Berry in 1984. Berry showed that when a quantum system’s Hamiltonian is changed slowly (adiabatically) and brought back to its initial form, the wavefunction gains a phase factor determined by the geometry of the path taken through parameter space. This Berry’s phase is a global, path-dependent property and is insensitive to small errors in timing or field strength, since it depends only on the overall... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic QC > Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree... - Published: 2023-10-06 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree of freedom of a single photon, such as its polarization (horizontal = |0⟩, vertical = |1⟩), or its presence/absence in a given mode (occupation number basis: no photon = |0⟩, one photon = |1⟩ in a mode), or time-bin (photon arriving early vs late). Photons are appealing qubits because they travel at the speed of light, have very low environmental interaction (hence can maintain coherence over long distances, which is why photons are used in quantum communication), and operate at room temperature. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree of freedom of a single photon, such as its polarization (horizontal = |0⟩, vertical = |1⟩), or its presence/absence in a given mode (occupation number basis: no photon = |0⟩, one photon = |1⟩ in a mode), or time-bin (photon arriving early vs late). Photons are appealing qubits because they travel at the speed of light, have very low environmental interaction (hence can maintain coherence over long distances, which is why photons are used in quantum communication), and operate at room temperature. Optical quantum computing paradigms generally involve manipulating photons with beam splitters, phase shifters, and optical nonlinearities to enact quantum gates. However, photons do not naturally interact with each other (two photons can pass through each other without effect), which makes two-qubit gates challenging. The main approach to achieve effective interactions is to use measurement-induced nonlinearity: employing detectors and additional photons (ancilla) to create entanglement probabilistically, or using special materials where photons interact (like Rydberg atomic ensembles or Kerr media, though these are less developed). The field really took off after 2001, when the KLM protocol (Knill, Laflamme, Milburn) showed that scalable quantum computing with only linear optics and photon detection is possible in principle, albeit with high resource overhead​. Key Academic Papers “A scheme for efficient quantum computation with linear optics” by Knill, Laflamme, and Milburn (Nature, 2001) is the landmark paper proving that photons, even with only beam splitters and detectors (i. e. linear optics), can perform universal quantum computing given sufficient ancilla photons and... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Trapped-Ion QC > Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - Published: 2023-10-05 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/trapped-ion-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. Trapped ions are often called “nature’s qubits” because every ion of a given isotope is identical, and they have naturally long coherence times. This paradigm was one of the earliest proposed for quantum computing, with Ignacio Cirac and Peter Zoller’s famous 1995 paper outlining how to do a CNOT gate with trapped ions via a shared phonon mode​. Key Academic Papers “Quantum computations with cold trapped ions” by J. I. Cirac and P. Zoller (Physical Review Letters, 1995) is the seminal proposal that showed a theoretically simple way to achieve a universal two-qubit gate in an ion trap​. They proposed using two internal levels of each ion as qubit states and the collective quantized motion of ions in the trap as a “data bus” to mediate interactions​. Specifically, by laser-cooling a string of ions to near the motional ground state, and then using laser pulses that couple an ion’s internal state to the motion (so-called sideband transitions), one can entangle any pair of ions. The Cirac-Zoller gate uses the first ion’s internal state to excite a shared vibrational quantum if in |1⟩, then flips the second ion conditioned on the vibrational excitation, and finally removes the... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Adiabatic Topological QC (ATQC) > Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum... - Published: 2023-10-04 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/adiabatic-topological/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum computing. In essence, ATQC uses slow, continuous changes in a quantum system’s Hamiltonian (an adiabatic evolution) to perform computations, while encoding information in topologically protected states for inherent error resistance. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum computing. In essence, ATQC uses slow, continuous changes in a quantum system’s Hamiltonian (an adiabatic evolution) to perform computations, while encoding information in topologically protected states for inherent error resistance. The idea is to harness the robustness of topological qubits (which are naturally immune to certain local errors) and the flexibility of the adiabatic model to execute quantum algorithms. By doing so, ATQC aims to achieve universal quantum computing in a way that is intrinsically fault-tolerant – meaning the quantum information is less prone to decoherence and errors throughout the computation​. This approach is significant because one of the biggest challenges in quantum computing is error correction: traditional quantum circuits require extensive active error correction, whereas topological schemes like ATQC promise error-resilient computation with far less overhead​. In ATQC, quantum bits (qubits) are typically encoded in the degenerate ground state of a specially designed many-body system – often inspired by topological quantum error-correcting codes (such as Kitaev’s surface code or color codes). The system’s Hamiltonian has a protected ground space where all ground states are separated from excited states by an energy gap​. Quantum operations are carried out by slowly deforming this Hamiltonian – for example, by creating, moving, or merging topological features (like quasiparticles or “holes” in the code) – in an adiabatic fashion. If this deformation is done sufficiently slowly relative to the energy gap, the system stays in the ground state manifold (up to phase factors) throughout the process. The result is that a desired quantum gate is... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Neuromorphic QC (NQC) > Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing... - Published: 2023-10-03 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/neuromorphic-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum AI, Quantum Computing Paradigms Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing: neuromorphic computing and quantum computing. Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the architecture of the human brain – it uses networks of artificial neurons and synapses (often implemented in specialized hardware) to process information in a highly parallel and energy-efficient way, much like brains do. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksQuantum Neural Networks (Parametrized Quantum Circuits)Synaptic Quantum Circuits (Quantum Memristors and Nonlinear Elements)Quantum Reservoirs and Oscillator NetworksComparison to Other ParadigmsVersus Classical Neuromorphic ComputingVersus Gate-Based Quantum ComputingVersus Quantum-Inspired Machine LearningCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Neuromorphic Quantum ComputingDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing: neuromorphic computing and quantum computing. Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the architecture of the human brain – it uses networks of artificial neurons and synapses (often implemented in specialized hardware) to process information in a highly parallel and energy-efficient way, much like brains do. Quantum computing, on the other hand, uses quantum-mechanical phenomena (such as qubits that can exist in superposition of states and become entangled) to perform computations that are infeasible for classical computers. Neuromorphic quantum computing aims to integrate these principles, leveraging brain-like neural network structures implemented on quantum hardware​. In simple terms, it envisions quantum neural networks – computational networks that behave like neural nets but operate using quantum signals. By fusing the two fields, NQC creates a new computational model that is neither purely classical neuromorphic nor a standard gate-based quantum computer. Instead, it physically realizes neural network operations through quantum processes​. For example, an NQC system might use qubits, quantum oscillators, or other quantum elements that function analogously to neurons and synapses. This combination is thought to harness the best of both worlds: the adaptive, learning-oriented nature of neural networks and the exponential parallelism of quantum mechanics. In fact, a quantum system can store and process information in a tremendously high-dimensional state space; using quantum states to represent neural network activity could provide an exponential... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Topological QC > Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees... - Published: 2023-10-03 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/topological-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees of freedom, and to perform quantum gates by braiding or otherwise manipulating these topological objects. The central promise of topological QC is built-in error protection: information stored in a topological form is inherently protected from local noise by global properties (similar to how a knot’s existence doesn’t depend on the exact rope configuration, only on its topological class). What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s PursuingQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategoryMajorana QubitsFibonacci Anyons(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees of freedom, and to perform quantum gates by braiding or otherwise manipulating these topological objects. The central promise of topological QC is built-in error protection: information stored in a topological form is inherently protected from local noise by global properties (similar to how a knot’s existence doesn’t depend on the exact rope configuration, only on its topological class). In more concrete terms, topological quantum computing often refers to using non-Abelian anyons – quasiparticles that can occur in certain two-dimensional systems – as carriers of quantum information. Unlike ordinary fermions or bosons, when you exchange (braid) non-Abelian anyons, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation that depends only on the topological class of the braiding path, not on the details of how it’s carried out. This unitary can serve as a quantum gate. Because it’s topologically defined, small perturbations or noise that do not alter the braid’s topology do not cause errors in the quantum information. Essentially, as long as the anyons are kept far apart and braiding is done without them coming too close (which could cause them to annihilate or interact non-topologically), the computation is resistant to local disturbances​. A leading candidate for non-Abelian anyons are Majorana zero modes (which are quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles) in topological superconductors. These Majorana modes are expected to exhibit so-called Ising anyon statistics (a type of non-Abelian statistics). In a typical picture, one might have a pair of Majorana zero modes (MZMs) that... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Adiabatic QC (AQC) > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics... - Published: 2023-10-02 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/adiabatic-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics. It generalizes the idea of quantum annealing beyond just optimization. In AQC, one encodes the solution of an arbitrary computation in the ground state of some problem Hamiltonian $H_{\text{problem}}$. Instead of applying discrete gates, one evolves the quantum state continuously under a time-dependent Hamiltonian $H(t)$ from an initial easy state to the final state that encodes the answer. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison to Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics. It generalizes the idea of quantum annealing beyond just optimization. In AQC, one encodes the solution of an arbitrary computation in the ground state of some problem Hamiltonian $$H_{\text{problem}}$$. Instead of applying discrete gates, one evolves the quantum state continuously under a time-dependent Hamiltonian $$H(t)$$ from an initial easy state to the final state that encodes the answer. If the evolution is slow enough (adiabatic), the system stays in the instantaneous ground state throughout, thus ending in the ground state of $$H_{\text{problem}}$$, which yields the solution. Mathematically, the setup is similar to QA: one prepares the system in the ground state of a simple Hamiltonian $$H(0) = H_{\text{initial}}$$ (e. g. a strong transverse field whose ground state is $$|+... +\rangle$$). Then $$H(t)$$ is varied smoothly to $$H(T) = H_{\text{problem}}$$ over total time $$T$$. The adiabatic theorem guarantees that if $$T$$ is large compared to $$\frac{1}{g_{\min}^2}$$ (where $$g_{\min}$$ is the minimum energy gap between ground state and first excited state during the evolution), the system will end in the ground state of $$H_{\text{problem}}$$ with high fidelity. In essence, computation is achieved by slow deformation of the Hamiltonian rather than sequences of gates. Importantly, any quantum algorithm (in the circuit model) can be translated into an adiabatic process. This was proven in a landmark result by Aharonov et al. (2004). They described an efficient mapping whereby an arbitrary quantum circuit of $$L$$ gates is converted into a certain $$H_{\text{problem}}$$ whose ground state encodes the circuit’s output, and the adiabatic evolution steers the computer into that ground... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors & Defects > One well-known example for spin-qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom... - Published: 2023-10-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/spin-qubits-defects/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms In addition to silicon, spin qubits can be realized in other solid-state systems. One well-known example is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom next to a vacancy in the carbon lattice creates an electronic spin-1 system that can be used as qubit. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It Works (NV Center)How It Works (Quantum Dot in GaAs/Others)How It Works (Hole Qubits)Comparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development Status (NV and Defects)Current Status (Quantum Dot Spins in III-V)Advantages (NV/defects)DisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook (NV/Defects)Future Outlook (Quantum Dot & Alternative Spins)(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) (Note: There is some overlap with silicon-based qubits, but here we include other spin-qubit implementations: in III-V semiconductor quantum dots, in diamond NV centers, etc. , highlighting approaches outside silicon or in “exotic” materials. ) What It Is In addition to silicon, spin qubits can be realized in other solid-state systems. One well-known example is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom next to a vacancy in the carbon lattice creates an electronic spin-1 system that can be used as qubit (often using the $$m_s=0$$ and $$m_s=+1$$ sublevels as |0⟩ and |1⟩). NV centers have the unique ability to be controlled and read out even at room temperature by optical means (they fluoresce bright or dim depending on spin state under green laser excitation). They also have a nuclear spin (like the N’s nuclear spin) that can serve as auxiliary qubits. NV centers and similar defects (like silicon vacancy in diamond, divacancies and single silicon carbide defects, etc. ) are pursued for quantum networking (as single-photon sources) and for quantum computing nodes (e. g. , small registers of a few spins in a diamond that can network with others via photons). Another example: Quantum dots in III-V semiconductors (GaAs, InAs, etc. ) – historically, the first two-qubit spin gate was in GaAs double quantum dots (Petta et al. 2005 did a SWAP gate). GaAs electron spins have coherence limited by nuclear spins (Ga and... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Silicon-Based Qubits > Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS... - Published: 2023-10-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/silicon-based-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS fabrication infrastructure. The most common silicon qubit implementations are spin qubits – using the spin of an electron or the spin of an atomic nucleus embedded in silicon as a qubit. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksQuantum Dot SpinsDonor SpinsHole spin qubitsTopological in Silicon? Comparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS fabrication infrastructure. The most common silicon qubit implementations are spin qubits – using the spin of an electron or the spin of an atomic nucleus embedded in silicon as a qubit. Two prominent examples are: (1) Quantum dot spin qubits – single electrons confined in transistor-like silicon quantum dot structures, where the electron’s spin-up vs spin-down (relative to a magnetic field) represents |0⟩ vs |1⟩; (2) Donor spin qubits – using dopant atoms (like a phosphorus atom substituting a silicon atom in the lattice) whose extra electron (or nuclear spin) serves as a qubit. Silicon is attractive because it’s the foundation of the microelectronics industry – billions of nanoscale transistors are made with ultra-high precision on silicon wafers, so if qubits can be made in silicon, one could in principle scale using similar processes. Moreover, isotopically purified silicon (Si-28) is a very clean environment with zero nuclear spins (since Si-28 has none), leading to extremely long spin coherence times for electron and nuclear spins (since they’re not disturbed by fluctuating nuclear spin noise)​. This approach is sometimes called “silicon quantum dot computing” or “silicon spintronics for quantum”. Key Academic Papers A foundational proposal was by Bruce Kane (1998): “A silicon-based nuclear spin quantum computer. " Kane’s paper outlined how donor atoms (like phosphorus) in silicon could be used to realize qubits (nuclear spins of P donors) and coupled via the electrostatic interaction modulated by gate electrodes. This sparked the silicon quantum computing field. It suggested using the... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC) > Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is... - Published: 2023-09-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/measurement-based-mbqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is driven entirely by measurements on an entangled resource state​. Instead of applying a sequence of unitary gates to a register of qubits, MBQC starts with a highly entangled state of many qubits (typically a cluster state) and then performs single-qubit measurements in a carefully chosen order and basis. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s PursuingQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategoryPhotonic Cluster-State ComputingIon Trap/Neutral Atom Implementations of MBQC(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is driven entirely by measurements on an entangled resource state​. Instead of applying a sequence of unitary gates to a register of qubits, MBQC starts with a highly entangled state of many qubits (typically a cluster state) and then performs single-qubit measurements in a carefully chosen order and basis. The outcomes of these measurements determine the results of the computation, and crucially, they may dictate how later measurements are performed (a concept called feed-forward). Once a qubit is measured, it’s essentially removed (consumed) from the computer—hence “one-way” quantum computing, as the entangled resource is gradually used up. The cluster state is the central resource in MBQC. A cluster state is a specific type of entangled state that can be described on a graph: each vertex is a qubit initialized to $$|+\rangle = (|0\rangle+|1\rangle)/\sqrt{2}$$, and each edge represents applying a controlled-phase gate (CZ) between the two connected qubits. For example, a simple cluster could be a 1D chain of qubits entangled by CZ gates between nearest neighbors, or a 2D lattice of qubits entangled in a grid. In notation, if $$E$$ is the set of edges, a cluster state on graph $$G=(V,E)$$ can be written as: $$∣Φcluster⟩=∏(i,j)∈ECZij  ⨂k∈V∣+⟩k. |\Phi_{\text{cluster}}\rangle = \prod_{(i,j)\in E} CZ_{ij} \;\bigotimes_{k \in V} |+\rangle_k. ∣Φcluster​⟩=∏(i,j)∈E​CZij​⨂k∈V​∣+⟩k​$$. This state has the special property that it is highly entangled and serves as a universal substrate for quantum computation. It’s an eigenstate of certain commuting stabilizers (e. g. , for a 2D cluster, each qubit’s $$X \otimes... --- ### New Coalition Launched to Tackle Post-Quantum Cryptography > The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address... - Published: 2023-09-29 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mitre-coalition/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address the imminent threats posed by quantum computing to current cryptographic systems. The coalition aims to accelerate the development and adoption of quantum-resistant cryptographic solutions, ensuring the security and privacy of data against future quantum attacks. Quantum computers, once fully developed, will have the capability to break existing encryption methods, potentially compromising sensitive information across various sectors. The coalition brings together experts from industry, academia, and government to create robust strategies and technologies that can withstand the power of quantum computing. The coalition will focus on key areas such as developing new cryptographic standards, enhancing public awareness, and promoting best practices for quantum-resistant security. This initiative underscores the growing recognition of the potential risks posed by quantum computing and the need for proactive measures to secure digital systems for the future. For more information, visit the MITRE Corporation’s news release. --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Neutral Atom (Rydberg) QC > Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic... - Published: 2023-09-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/neutral-atom-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic states. A popular approach is to use optical tweezers (focused laser beams) to trap arrays of neutral atoms (like rubidium or cesium). These atoms have internal states (usually hyperfine ground states) that serve as |0⟩ and |1⟩, similar to ion qubits. The key mechanism for entangling neutral atom qubits is to excite atoms to highly excited electronic states called Rydberg states. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic states. A popular approach is to use optical tweezers (focused laser beams) to trap arrays of neutral atoms (like rubidium or cesium). These atoms have internal states (usually hyperfine ground states) that serve as |0⟩ and |1⟩, similar to ion qubits. The key mechanism for entangling neutral atom qubits is to excite atoms to highly excited electronic states called Rydberg states. Rydberg atoms have extremely large electric dipole moments and interact strongly with each other at distances of a few micrometers, an effect known as Rydberg blockade: an excited Rydberg atom shifts the energy levels of nearby atoms, preventing them from being excited simultaneously​. This blockade can be exploited to create two-qubit gates (like a controlled-Z or controlled-not) between atoms by laser pulses that rely on this “one atom or the other can be excited, but not both” phenomenon​. Neutral atom QC is somewhat a hybrid of ion traps and photonics: atoms are discrete qubits like ions, but they are controlled by lasers and can be arranged in 2D (like pixels) by optical systems. They don’t require charged confinement (so no RF trap electrodes), making it easier to create scalable arrays (hundreds of optical tweezers can be made with spatial light modulators or diffractive optics). Companies like Pasqal (France) and QuEra (USA) are pursuing neutral atom processors; Pasqal has demonstrated 100+ atom analog quantum simulations, and QuEra has a 256-atom analog quantum simulator (focused on quantum annealing/simulation tasks for now). Neutral atoms can be used... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Annealing (QA) > Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum... - Published: 2023-09-25 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-annealing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum tunneling and the adiabatic principle. It's a special case of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC). The idea is to encode a problem (typically an NP-hard optimization) into an energy landscape, where the lowest energy (ground) state corresponds to the optimal solution. A quantum annealer starts in the easily prepared ground state of a simple initial Hamiltonian (energy function) and slowly interpolates to a final Hamiltonian that represents the problem​. If the interpolation (anneal) is slow enough, the system is supposed to remain in its ground state (by the adiabatic theorem) and end up in the problem’s optimal state. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum tunneling and the adiabatic principle. It's a special case of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC). The idea is to encode a problem (typically an NP-hard optimization) into an energy landscape, where the lowest energy (ground) state corresponds to the optimal solution. A quantum annealer starts in the easily prepared ground state of a simple initial Hamiltonian (energy function) and slowly interpolates to a final Hamiltonian that represents the problem​. If the interpolation (anneal) is slow enough, the system is supposed to remain in its ground state (by the adiabatic theorem) and end up in the problem’s optimal state. In practice, quantum annealers like D-Wave’s systems work with a spin-glass model. The problem is formulated as a set of qubits (quantum spins) with programmable interactions. For example, one common formulation is an Ising model or equivalently a quadratic unconstrained binary optimization (QUBO) problem. The Hamiltonian of the final problem might be written as: $$Hproblem  =  ∑i --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Walk QC > Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker"... - Published: 2023-09-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-walk/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker" (such as a particle or an agent) moves step by step in a certain space (like a line or a graph) with some probability distribution. In a quantum walk, the walker instead evolves in a superposition of positions, following the rules of quantum mechanics. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow Quantum Walks WorkComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Quantum WalksDisadvantages and Challenges of Quantum WalksImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker" (such as a particle or an agent) moves step by step in a certain space (like a line or a graph) with some probability distribution. In a quantum walk, the walker instead evolves in a superposition of positions, following the rules of quantum mechanics. This means the walker can effectively take many paths simultaneously, and the paths interfere with each other—some paths reinforcing and others canceling out due to quantum interference​​. As a result, quantum walks can spread or “diffuse” through the space faster and in different patterns than classical random walks, leveraging superposition and entanglement to achieve computational effects beyond classical methods. There are two primary types of quantum walks: discrete-time and continuous-time. In a discrete-time quantum walk, time progresses in steps and the evolution is governed by repeated applications of a unitary "coin toss" and a conditional shift. For example, a common discrete-time quantum walk model uses a qubit coin: at each step a quantum coin is flipped (put into a superposition of “heads” and “tails”), and then the walker moves left or right depending on the coin’s state. This coined discrete walk entangles the coin state with the walker's position, allowing the walker to explore multiple directions at once​. In contrast, a continuous-time quantum walk has no separate coin or time steps; instead the walker’s position evolves according to a continuous Schrödinger equation on a graph. The continuous-time walk is defined by a Hamiltonian (often chosen as the adjacency... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Fibonacci Anyons > Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics... - Published: 2023-09-16 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/fibonacci-anyons/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics beyond bosons or fermions. When two non-Abelian anyons like Fibonacci anyons are exchanged (braided) in space, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation (not just a phase change as with Abelian anyons)​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics beyond bosons or fermions. When two non-Abelian anyons like Fibonacci anyons are exchanged (braided) in space, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation (not just a phase change as with Abelian anyons)​. In a topological quantum computer, information is stored non-locally in the joint state of multiple anyons, and computations are performed by braiding these anyons around each other​. Because the information is encoded in global topological properties, it is inherently protected from small local errors or perturbations​. Fibonacci anyons are especially important in this context because they represent one of the simplest anyon models that is capable of universal quantum computation using braids alone​. A Fibonacci anyon is defined by a particular fusion rule and “golden” quantum dimension that link it to the Fibonacci sequence (hence the name). In the Fibonacci anyon model, there are only two particle types: the trivial vacuum (often denoted 1) and the Fibonacci anyon (often denoted τ). The fusion rules are extremely simple: combining two τ anyons can yield either a single τ or the vacuum, i. e. τ × τ = 1 + τ​. This non-Abelian fusion rule means two τ anyons have two possible outcomes when fused (analogous to two particles fusing into either of two channels). As a result, a set of $$n$$ Fibonacci anyons has a multi-dimensional Hilbert space (with dimension growing as the Fibonacci numbers or roughly the golden ration) suitable for encoding qubits​. Braiding the anyons produces unitary transformations within this space,... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: QA With Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) > Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt... - Published: 2023-09-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/annealing-boost-bang-bang/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt changes in the control parameters – essentially applying bang–bang control to quantum annealing. In control theory, a bang–bang controller is one that switches sharply between extreme values (on/off) rather than varying smoothly​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of “Bang-Bang” AnnealingDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum Annealing (QA) is a quantum optimization process that finds the global minimum of an objective function using quantum fluctuations (such as tunneling)​. It was first conceptualized in the late 1980s as a quantum-inspired algorithm and formulated in its modern form by Kadowaki and Nishimori in 1998​. In QA, a system of qubits is initialized in the ground state of a simple, “driver” Hamiltonian (e. g. a transverse field) and then slowly evolved toward a Hamiltonian encoding the problem to solve. According to the adiabatic theorem, if this evolution is slow enough, the system ideally stays in its ground state, ending in the ground state of the problem Hamiltonian – which corresponds to the optimal solution​. This approach is analogous to classical simulated annealing (which slowly lowers temperature to settle into a low-energy state) but uses quantum tunneling instead of thermal fluctuations to escape local minima​. Indeed, early results showed QA could reach the true ground state (optimal solution) with higher probability than classical annealing on certain problems when using the same schedule​, highlighting its potential advantage. Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt changes in the control parameters – essentially applying bang–bang control to quantum annealing. In control theory, a bang–bang controller is one that switches sharply between extreme values (on/off) rather than varying smoothly​. Translated to quantum annealing, this means the quantum Hamiltonian is driven in a piecewise-constant, on/off fashion rather than via a slow, analog sweep. For example, instead of continuously turning down the transverse field and turning... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Dissipative QC (DQC) > Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics... - Published: 2023-09-13 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/dissipative-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics – in other words, it uses controlled dissipation (interaction with an environment and irreversible processes) as a resource for computing. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Dissipative Quantum ComputingDisadvantages of Dissipative Quantum ComputingImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics – in other words, it uses controlled dissipation (interaction with an environment and irreversible processes) as a resource for computing. In conventional quantum computing, dissipation and decoherence are unwanted because they destroy quantum information. By contrast, DQC intentionally couples qubits to engineered environments so that the loss of energy or information to a reservoir actually drives the quantum system toward a desired outcome​​. Instead of performing a sequence of unitary logic gates on an isolated system, one designs noise processes that “cool” the system into the solution state. The result of the computation is encoded in the steady-state of the quantum system under these dissipative dynamics​. In a DQC process, the quantum state evolution is described by a master equation (often a Lindblad master equation) rather than a simple Schrödinger equation. For a density matrix $$\rho$$, a general Lindblad equation is: $$dρdt=∑kLk ρ Lk†  −  12{Lk†Lk,  ρ},\frac{d\rho}{dt} = \sum_k L_k\,\rho\,L_k^{\dagger} \;-\; \frac{1}{2}\{L_k^{\dagger}L_k,\; \rho\},dtdρ​=∑k​Lk​ρLk†​−21​{Lk†​Lk​,ρ}$$, where $${\cdot,\cdot}$$ is the anti-commutator and the operators $$L_k$$ (Lindblad or “jump” operators) represent couplings to the environment​. By appropriately choosing the set of $${L_k}$$, one can ensure that the unique stationary state of this evolution is the answer to a computation. In essence, the computation is carried out by the system’s natural relaxation: no matter what initial state you prepare, the engineered dissipation will irreversibly drive the system into a particular steady state $$\rho_{\text{ss}}$$ that encodes the solution​. Dissipation that would normally cause errors is turned into a mechanism for error correction and stabilization –... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Majorana Qubits > Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles... - Published: 2023-09-12 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/majorana-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles. These modes emerge in certain superconducting systems as zero-energy states bound to defects or boundaries. Uniquely, information stored in a pair of Majorana modes is nonlocally encoded – effectively an electron's quantum state is split between two separated locations. This topological encoding makes the qubit highly insensitive to local disturbances​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles. These modes emerge in certain superconducting systems as zero-energy states bound to defects or boundaries. Uniquely, information stored in a pair of Majorana modes is nonlocally encoded – effectively an electron's quantum state is split between two separated locations. This topological encoding makes the qubit highly insensitive to local disturbances​. In other words, Majorana-based qubits are topologically protected: small noise or perturbations cannot easily decohere or destroy the qubit’s state, unlike in conventional qubits. This intrinsic robustness is a primary reason Majorana qubits are of great interest for quantum computing​. Majorana qubits are central to the vision of topological quantum computing. In this paradigm (pioneered by Kitaev and others), quantum gates are carried out by braiding (exchanging) non-Abelian anyons – of which Majorana modes are a prime example​​. Braiding two Majorana particles around one another changes the state of the qubit in a way that depends only on the topological path of the exchange, not on the fine details of how the operation is implemented​. This means the computation is naturally fault-tolerant: as long as the braiding is done without cutting or creating new anyons, the resulting quantum gate is exact. The promise of inherent fault tolerance, combined with expected long coherence times, makes Majorana qubits a highly sought-after building block for scalable quantum computers​. In summary, a Majorana qubit uses pairs of Majorana zero modes to encode a single quantum bit of information in a delocalized, topologically protected way. This approach could enable qubits that remain stable much longer than... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Biological QC > Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations... - Published: 2023-09-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/biological-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations or that we could harness biological processes to implement quantum computing. This paradigm is highly exploratory and not yet realized in any form, lying at the intersection of quantum physics, biology, and computer science. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantages (Hypothetical)DisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations or that we could harness biological processes to implement quantum computing. This paradigm is highly exploratory and not yet realized in any form, lying at the intersection of quantum physics, biology, and computer science. There are two main interpretations: Biology as the computer: Certain processes in living organisms might naturally exploit quantum effects to compute or process information. For example, it has been hypothesized that the brain could be a quantum computer, or that plants perform quantum optimizations in photosynthesis. These ideas suggest that evolution might have stumbled upon quantum mechanisms to enhance functionality (like efficiency of energy transfer or perhaps even consciousness via quantum processes in neurons). Biology-inspired hardware: Using biological materials or biologically derived structures to build quantum computers. For instance, using proteins, DNA, or other biomolecules as qubits or as scaffolds to hold and manipulate qubits. This also covers hybrid approaches where biological systems interface with quantum systems (like a living organism that interacts with a quantum device). At present, no clear evidence exists that any biological system performs non-trivial quantum algorithms. But there are intriguing phenomena: Photosynthetic complexes in certain algae and bacteria show quantum coherence in exciton transfer (energy transfer) at room temperature, which might help them transfer energy more efficiently​. Migratory birds like European robins appear to have a compass mechanism in their eyes that may involve entangled radical pairs (a quantum effect) to sense Earth’s magnetic field – a quantum biological sensor, essentially. The human sense of smell has been theorized (by Luca Turin) to involve quantum tunneling of electrons for... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Boson Sampling QC (Gaussian & Non-Gaussian) > Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution... - Published: 2023-09-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/boson-sampling/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution of indistinguishable bosons (typically photons) that have passed through a passive linear interferometer​. In simpler terms, one prepares multiple photons, sends them through a network of beam splitters and phase shifters (a linear optical circuit), and then measures how many photons exit in each output mode. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksUnderlying Physics and Computation (Non-Gaussian Boson Sampling)Gaussian Boson Sampling (Using Squeezed States)Comparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution of indistinguishable bosons (typically photons) that have passed through a passive linear interferometer​. In simpler terms, one prepares multiple photons, sends them through a network of beam splitters and phase shifters (a linear optical circuit), and then measures how many photons exit in each output mode. The resulting pattern of detection (which output ports registered photons) is a sample from a complicated probability distribution. This distribution is determined by the quantum interference of all the ways bosons can scatter through the network. The task may sound abstract, but it carries deep significance: sampling from this distribution is strongly believed to be classically intractable when the number of photons grows large​. In fact, the mathematical amplitudes for these photon scattering events are given by the permanent of large matrices, a calculation that is #P-hard (extremely difficult for classical computers)​. Scott Aaronson and Alex Arkhipov, who introduced the boson sampling model, showed that if a polynomial-time classical algorithm could simulate boson sampling, it would imply a collapse of the polynomial hierarchy in complexity theory (an unlikely scenario)​. This connection to computational complexity is why boson sampling is seen as a promising path to demonstrate a quantum advantage over classical computers, even though it is not a general-purpose quantum computer​. In essence, boson sampling trades universality for feasibility. It does only one particular type of computation (sampling a bosonic distribution), but it does so with far fewer resources than a... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) > Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information... - Published: 2023-09-09 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-cellular-automata/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information processing happens in many parallel identical cells interacting with neighbors under a uniform rule​. It’s a quantum counterpart to classical cellular automata (like Conway’s Game of Life, but quantum). What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information processing happens in many parallel identical cells interacting with neighbors under a uniform rule​. It’s a quantum counterpart to classical cellular automata (like Conway’s Game of Life, but quantum). In a QCA, you have a grid (lattice) of quantum systems (e. g. qubits on each site), and the entire grid’s state evolves in discrete time steps according to some global unitary $$G$$ that factorizes into local operations. Typically, each cell updates based on its own state and the state of a fixed neighborhood (like nearest neighbors), and the same update rule applies everywhere (translation-invariance)​. Importantly, to maintain causality (no information faster than light), the update rule must be locally unitary and not allow influence to propagate arbitrarily fast (usually, a cell’s state at time $$t+1$$ only depends on information within a finite radius of that cell at time $$t$$)​. In essence, QCA is like a quantum circuit that repeats across space infinitely (or with periodic boundary)​. One time step of a QCA could be seen as one layer of a quantum circuit applied in parallel to many blocks of qubits. For example, a simple 1D QCA might involve an update rule: apply a certain 3-qubit unitary to each triple of neighboring cells (with some scheme to cover the line evenly). Doing that for all triples constitutes one time tick. John von Neumann’s classical cellular automaton concept (1940s) had cells that could do universal computation. The quantum analogy aims for the same: a QCA that can simulate a quantum Turing machine or quantum circuit and... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Time Crystals' Potential QC Use > Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state... - Published: 2023-09-08 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/time-crystals-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state exhibits periodic motion in time. This is analogous to how ordinary crystals break spatial translation symmetry by arranging atoms in a repeating lattice pattern in space. In a time crystal, the system’s constituents oscillate in a regular pattern without drifting toward thermal equilibrium. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow Time Crystals WorkExperimental RealizationsComparison to Other Quantum Computing ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusPotential Advantages in Quantum ComputationDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state exhibits periodic motion in time. This is analogous to how ordinary crystals break spatial translation symmetry by arranging atoms in a repeating lattice pattern in space. In a time crystal, the system’s constituents oscillate in a regular pattern without drifting toward thermal equilibrium​​. In other words, the system cycles through states periodically in time, much like a ticking clock, even in its ground state or steady state. This persistent motion occurs without continuous energy input, evading the normal tendency of systems to equilibrate (seemingly defying entropy increase under the Second Law of Thermodynamics)​​. There are two major categories of time crystals: continuous time crystals and discrete time crystals. A continuous time crystal, as originally envisioned by Frank Wilczek, would break the continuous time-translation symmetry of an isolated, time-independent system – meaning the system’s true ground state is a perpetually oscillating configuration​​. However, it was later shown that such continuous time crystals cannot occur in equilibrium for ordinary short-range interacting systems (more on that in the next section). On the other hand, discrete time crystals (DTCs) occur in periodically driven (Floquet) systems that break the discrete time symmetry of the driving force. In a DTC, the system responds with a period that is an integer multiple of the driving period (often twice the period, i. e. subharmonic oscillation), rather than syncing exactly with the drive​​. Crucially, a discrete time crystal is a non-equilibrium phase of matter – it never... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: DNA-Based QIP > DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer... - Published: 2023-09-06 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/dna-based-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer. This could mean DNA acting as qubits, facilitating quantum interactions, or serving as a structural scaffold for other qubits. It's an intersection of quantum technology with biotechnology and nanotechnology. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer. This could mean DNA acting as qubits, facilitating quantum interactions, or serving as a structural scaffold for other qubits. It's an intersection of quantum technology with biotechnology and nanotechnology. There are several angles to consider: DNA as Qubits: DNA has specific quantum aspects (like the electrons in the base pairs, or the spin of nuclei in the bases). Some researchers have speculated that the two complementary bases in a pair (A-T or C-G) could form a two-level quantum system that might be manipulated​. For instance, the hydrogen bonds between base pairs could tunnel between configurations (there’s a phenomenon of proton tunneling causing A* (tautomer) pairing with C occasionally). One could imagine encoding 0 and 1 in two conformations of a base pair and using quantum tunneling as operations. A bold proposal by Riera et al. (2021) treated each A-T or C-G pair as a Josephson-like junction where the hydrogen bonds allow a shared proton to quantum tunnel, acting like a phase qubit. They suggested DNA base pairs could behave as superconducting paired elements at very low temperature, which is highly speculative and not experimentally shown. Nuclear Spins in DNA: Every atom in DNA has nuclear spins. Notably, the phosphorus atom in the backbone is spin-1/2 (for the dominant isotope P-31) and could serve as a qubit with relatively long coherence (phosphorus nuclear spins in a solid lattice can have long T1 and T2). Carbon-13 if present (1% naturally) in the bases is spin-1/2. One can envision using these nuclear spins as qubits and the... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: One-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1) > The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing... - Published: 2023-09-05 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/one-clean-qubit-dqc1/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing paradigm where only a single qubit starts in a pure (or “clean”) state while all other qubits are in a completely mixed state​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing paradigm where only a single qubit starts in a pure (or “clean”) state while all other qubits are in a completely mixed state​. In formal terms, the initial density matrix has the form $$ρ0=∣0⟩⟨0∣⊗I/2 n−1\rho_0 = |0\rangle\langle0| \otimes I/2^{\,n-1}ρ0​=∣0⟩⟨0∣⊗I/2n−1$$, meaning one qubit is in a pure $$|0\rangle$$ state and the remaining $$n-1$$ qubits are maximally mixed​. This model was originally motivated by the conditions in high-temperature nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) quantum computers, where preparing a fully pure multi-qubit state is extremely challenging, but obtaining one highly polarized qubit is feasible​. DQC1 asks what computational power is possible in this scenario of almost entirely “dirty” (mixed) qubits. DQC1 was introduced in 1998 by Emanuel Knill and Raymond Laflamme as a surprising demonstration that useful quantum computation could be done with very little initial quantum purity​. They showed that even though this model is less powerful than a standard quantum computer in theory, it can efficiently perform certain tasks for which no efficient classical algorithms are known​. In other words, with only one qubit of the register being clean (quantum-coherent) and all others in random states, the computer can still solve specific problems believed to be classically intractable. This finding established DQC1 as an important paradigm for exploring the minimum quantum resources required for a computational speed-up. It challenges the conventional view that a quantum computer needs all qubits in pure, entangled states – instead, DQC1 suggests that a single clean qubit combined with non-classical correlations among mixed-state qubits can sometimes... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Exotic and Emerging QC > Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare... - Published: 2023-09-04 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/exotic-emerging-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare to mainstream quantum computers, and what implications they might hold for the future. We also introduce each paradigm in turn – from quantum cellular automata and biological quantum computing to holonomic gates and time crystals – explaining each in high-level, non-technical terms. Overview: Why Explore Unconventional Quantum Paradigms? Common Themes Among Emerging ParadigmsComparing Emerging Paradigms to Mainstream Quantum ComputingPotential Implications for the Future of Quantum ComputingA Glimpse at Exotic Quantum Paradigms (Brief Introductions)Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA)Biological Quantum ComputingDNA-Based Quantum Information ProcessingDissipative Quantum ComputingAdiabatic Topological Quantum ComputingBoson Sampling (Gaussian and Non-Gaussian)Quantum Walk ComputingNeuromorphic Quantum ComputingHolonomic (Geometric Phase) Quantum ComputingTime Crystals and Quantum ComputingOne-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1)Quantum Annealing + Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing)Photonic Continuous-Variable (CV) Quantum ComputingQuantum LDPC Codes and Cluster-State ComputingQuantum Cellular Automata in Living CellsHybrid Quantum Computing ArchitecturesEmbracing Speculation: Why Explore These Frontiers? (For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) Quantum computing has thus far been dominated by gate-based (circuit) models and adiabatic/annealing approaches. These mainstream paradigms have achieved milestone demonstrations, yet they face significant challenges in scaling up and dealing with errors. This has motivated researchers to explore a spectrum of unconventional quantum computing approaches that push beyond the standard models. In this survey, I will provide an overview of these “exotic and emerging” paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare to mainstream quantum computers, and what implications they might hold for the future. I'll also introduce each paradigm in turn briefly here and in much more detail in dedicated posts – from quantum cellular automata and biological quantum computing to holonomic gates and time crystals – explaining each in high-level, non-technical terms. Overview: Why Explore Unconventional Quantum Paradigms? Despite rapid progress, today’s quantum computers remain fragile and small-scale, largely limited by decoherence (loss of quantum information due to noise) and hardware complexity​. The gate-based model (quantum circuits of logic gates on qubits) and the adiabatic model (gradually evolving a system’s Hamiltonian, as used in quantum annealers) are two well-established approaches. Each has strengths – gate models... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic Continuous-Variable QC (CVQC) > Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously... - Published: 2023-09-03 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-continuous-variable/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously varying quantities (like the amplitude or phase of an electromagnetic field) instead of discrete two-level systems (qubits). What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Photonic CVQCDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Continuous-variable quantum computing encodes quantum information in continuous degrees of freedom, such as the quadratures of light (analogous to position and momentum), rather than binary quantum bits​​. In a photonic CV system, a quantum mode of the electromagnetic field (often called a qumode) carries information in properties like the amplitude and phase of light. Measuring such a mode can yield a continuous range of outcomes (any real value within some range), unlike a qubit measurement which yields a 0 or 1​. Each photonic mode corresponds to an oscillator with an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, meaning it can theoretically hold more information than a two-dimensional qubit. Photonic systems are a promising platform for CVQC because quantum states of light are relatively accessible and controllable using well-established tools of quantum optics. Lasers can produce coherent states of light (think of a minimal quantum version of a classical electromagnetic wave), and nonlinear optical devices can produce squeezed states, which have reduced quantum uncertainty in one quadrature at the expense of increased uncertainty in the conjugate quadrature. Squeezed light is a key resource for CV quantum information processing, as it enables entanglement between modes and the creation of Gaussian quantum states (states whose Wigner function is Gaussian-shaped)​. In fact, many quantum optics experiments – like the generation of squeezed vacuum or entangled light beams – serve as the foundation for CVQC. Crucially, optical Gaussian operations (those that preserve the Gaussian nature of states, such as beam splitters, phase shifts, and squeezers) are readily implemented with standard optical components​. This makes photonics attractive: we can entangle dozens... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Hybrid QC Architectures > Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems... - Published: 2023-09-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/hybrid-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems with one another (and often with classical systems) to create a more powerful or versatile computer. This can mean hybridizing physical qubit modalities (e.g., using both superconducting qubits and photonic qubits together), or mixing analog and digital quantum methods, or even quantum-classical hybrids where a quantum processor works in tandem with a classical co-processor. What It IsComparisonAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems with one another (and often with classical systems) to create a more powerful or versatile computer. This can mean hybridizing physical qubit modalities (e. g. , using both superconducting qubits and photonic qubits together), or mixing analog and digital quantum methods, or even quantum-classical hybrids where a quantum processor works in tandem with a classical co-processor. The goal of hybrid architectures is to capitalize on the strengths of each component while mitigating individual weaknesses. Several forms of hybridization include: Heterogeneous Qubit Systems: Having more than one kind of qubit in the same machine. For example, a system where superconducting qubits do fast logic but communicate via optical photons to distant nodes (thus involving both microwave (supercond) and optical (photonic) elements)​. Or a hybrid of trapped ions and superconducting qubits, where ions could serve as long-lived memory qubits and superconductors as processing qubits. Quantum Network of Modules: A distributed quantum computer where each module might be a small quantum processor (like 50 superconducting qubits on a chip, or 50 trapped ions in a trap), and modules are connected by quantum links (optical fibers or free-space photons). This is hybrid in the sense of spatially separated quantum components connected by communication channels. Oxford’s recent demonstration linking two ion trap processors by photonic teleportation is a prime example​. In the future, networks of dozens of modules could act as one large computer. Hybrid of Computing Paradigms: E. g. , combining analog quantum simulation/annealing with digital gates. A specific case is the Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) which uses a parameterized sequence of analog Hamiltonian evolutions... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) & Cluster States > Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints - Published: 2023-09-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-ldpc-cluster-states/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints, analogous to classical LDPC codes. In a Quantum LDPC code (which is typically a stabilizer code), each stabilizer generator (parity-check operator) acts on only a small, fixed number of physical qubits, and each qubit participates in only a few such checks​. What It IsQuantum LDPC CodesCluster StatesKey Academic PapersQuantum LDPC CodesCluster StatesHow It WorksQuantum LDPC Codes – Error Correction MechanicsCluster States – MBQC and Fault-Tolerant ComputingComparison to Other ParadigmsQuantum LDPC vs. Other Quantum Error-Correction MethodsCluster-State MBQC vs. Circuit Model Quantum ComputingCurrent Development StatusQuantum LDPC Codes in Theory and ExperimentCluster States and MBQC in PracticeAdvantagesAdvantages of Quantum LDPC CodesAdvantages of Cluster-State MBQCDisadvantagesDisadvantages and Challenges of Quantum LDPC CodesDisadvantages and Challenges of Cluster-State ComputingImpact on Cybersecurity (if applicable)Broader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum LDPC Codes Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints, analogous to classical LDPC codes. In a Quantum LDPC code (which is typically a stabilizer code), each stabilizer generator (parity-check operator) acts on only a small, fixed number of physical qubits, and each qubit participates in only a few such checks. This sparsity means that as the code size (number of physical qubits $$n$$) grows, the weight of each check and the number of checks per qubit remain bounded by a constant. The role of quantum LDPC codes in quantum error correction (QEC) is to detect and correct errors on quantum bits (qubits) introduced by decoherence and noise, while using relatively few-body interactions for syndrome measurements. By measuring the stabilizers (parity checks) of an LDPC code, one obtains a syndrome that pinpoints error patterns without collapsing the encoded quantum information. The ultimate goal is to preserve logical qubit states reliably, enabling fault-tolerant quantum computation even when the underlying hardware is noisy. Quantum LDPC codes are especially interesting because their sparse structure can allow fast, parallel error syndrome extraction and potentially better error correction performance in certain regimes​. Notably, many known quantum LDPC codes are CSS... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Gate-Based / Universal QC > Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer... - Published: 2023-08-24 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/gate-based-universal-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer. In this model, computations are carried out by applying sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits), analogous to how classical computers use circuits of logic gates on bits. A gate-model quantum computer leverages uniquely quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and interference – to explore a vast computational space in parallel, offering potential speedups for certain problems far beyond classical capabilities​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksMain Paradigms Under This CategoryComparison to Other Quantum ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusQuantum Error Correction & Fault ToleranceAdvantages of the Gate ModelDisadvantages and ChallengesIndustry Use CasesImpact on CybersecurityThreats to CryptographyDefensive Measures and OpportunitiesFuture OutlookQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategorySuperconducting QubitsTrapped-Ion QubitsPhotonic Quantum ComputingNeutral Atom Quantum Computing (Rydberg Qubits)Silicon-Based Qubits (Quantum Dots & Donors in Silicon)Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors and Defects (NV Centers, Quantum Dots in III-V Materials)(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer. In this model, computations are carried out by applying sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits), analogous to how classical computers use circuits of logic gates on bits. A gate-model quantum computer leverages uniquely quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and interference – to explore a vast computational space in parallel, offering potential speedups for certain problems far beyond classical capabilities​. This paradigm is considered “universal” because an appropriate set of quantum gates can approximate any quantum operation; in theory, a gate-based quantum machine can perform any computation that a quantum Turing machine could, given enough qubits and time​. What It Is Gate-based quantum computing (the circuit model) is a framework where quantum algorithms are expressed as circuits acting on qubits. Each qubit can exist in a superposition of 0 and 1, and multiple qubits can become entangled, enabling complex multi-variable computations. Quantum logic gates – unitary operations like the Pauli-X (NOT), Hadamard, phase rotations, and two-qubit gates like CNOT – manipulate qubit states, and sequences of these gates (quantum circuits) carry out the computation. This mirrors classical circuits but operates under quantum rules. Crucially, a small set of gate types can be... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Annealing (QA) & Adiabatic QC (AQC) > Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve... - Published: 2023-08-21 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/annealing-adiabatic/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve problems. In both approaches, a problem is encoded into a landscape of energy states (a quantum Hamiltonian), and the system is guided to its lowest-energy state which corresponds to the optimal solution​. What It IsCommonalitiesDifferences and BoundariesComparison to Other Quantum Computing ModelsCurrent Research and Industry InterestChallenges and LimitationsPotential Future DirectionsQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategoryQuantum Annealing (QA)Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve problems. In both approaches, a problem is encoded into a landscape of energy states (a quantum Hamiltonian), and the system is guided to its lowest-energy state which corresponds to the optimal solution. QA and AQC rely on the quantum adiabatic theorem – the principle that if a system’s Hamiltonian is changed slowly enough and without outside disturbance, the system will remain in its ground (lowest-energy) state​. By starting from a known ground state and evolving to a Hamiltonian that encodes a computational problem, the solution can be “read out” as the final state of the system. These two paradigms are often grouped together because QA can be viewed as a practical implementation or subset of the adiabatic approach. Adiabatic quantum computing is a universal model of quantum computation – it has been proven polynomially equivalent in power to the standard gate-based model (in principle). QA, on the other hand, usually refers to methods and devices (like D-Wave’s quantum processors) that perform this slow-evolution approach specifically for optimization problems. In essence, QA is the “real-world” version of AQC, applying the same fundamental idea under less ideal conditions to tackle tasks like finding the minimum of a complex function​. Both QA and AQC involve harnessing quantum mechanics (such as superposition and tunneling) to navigate complex solution spaces, setting them apart from classical algorithms and making them a distinct category within quantum computing. Commonalities QA and AQC share a... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) in Living Cells > Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - Published: 2023-08-21 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/cellular-automata-cells/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) are an abstract model of quantum computation inspired by classical cellular automata​. In a QCA, many simple “cells” (each a quantum system, e. g. a qubit) are arranged in a lattice and update their states in parallel according to local rules​. Each cell’s next state depends on its current state and that of neighboring cells, analogous to classical cellular automata like Conway’s Game of Life, but governed by quantum mechanical principles​. Notably, quantum superposition allows each cell to exist in multiple states at once, and entanglement can correlate cells in ways impossible in classical systems. The evolution of a QCA is typically unitary (reversible), ensuring it obeys quantum physics constraints while ideally being universal for quantum computation​. (For clarity, “quantum cellular automata” should not be confused with quantum dot cellular automata, a nanotechnology logic paradigm that uses quantum tunneling for classical bit operations​. Here we focus on QCA as a quantum computing model. ) Extending QCA to biological systems is a speculative leap: it envisions living cells or their molecular components acting as elements of a quantum automaton. In this paradigm, a biochemical network inside a cell could carry quantum information, updating via local quantum interactions similarly to a QCA rule set. The fundamental idea is that quantum processes (e. g. electron excitations, spin states, or molecular conformations in superposition) within living cells might function like the “cells” of an automaton, processing information in parallel. If feasible, quantum mechanics could enable cellular automaton-like behavior in biology by exploiting phenomena such as coherent energy transfer, quantum state switching of biomolecules, and entangled states... --- ### Ethical and Privacy Implications of Quantum Sensing > We have entered a new era where age-old expectations of privacy must be redefined for the quantum age... - Published: 2023-08-09 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ethics-privacy-quantum-sensing/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum sensing sits at a crossroads of promise and peril. On one hand, it embodies the awe-inspiring potential of quantum technology – offering us new eyes and ears to perceive the world in richer detail than ever before. It could save lives by finding disaster survivors behind rubble, improve medical diagnostics by monitoring vitals without contact, and enable scientific discoveries by observing nature’s tiniest forces. On the other hand, the very features that make it powerful also make it dangerous to core values like privacy, freedom, and autonomy. An ultra-sensitive sensor does not discriminate between benign and sensitive information; it collects everything, and therein lies the risk. Without conscious checks, we risk drifting into a society where virtually no aspect of our lives is unobservable, where privacy exists only if one is off-grid in the literal sense (far from any quantum sensors). IntroductionWhat Are Ultra-Sensitive Quantum Sensors? The Ethical and Privacy ChallengesGovernment and Law Enforcement UseCorporate SurveillancePersonal Privacy RisksSecurity Risks and AbuseCase Studies & Real-World ExamplesAI and Quantum Sensing: A Perfect Storm? Current Laws and Regulations: Are They Enough? Preparing for the Future: What Regulations and Ethical Frameworks Do We Need? Conclusion: A Crossroads for Quantum TechnologyIntroduction Quantum sensing is emerging as a revolutionary technology that promises detection capabilities once thought impossible. These ultra-sensitive quantum sensors leverage exotic physics to measure minute signals—enabling humans to “see through barriers, around corners, and potentially into the body or mind. ” Such power could disrupt industries from medicine to national security, offering breakthroughs in imaging, navigation, and more. At the same time, it raises profound ethical and privacy concerns. A device that can peer through walls or pick up an individual’s heartbeat at a distance blurs the line between public and private space. Experts warn that quantum sensors could dramatically amplify surveillance, even enabling new forms of mass monitoring that infringe on civil liberties. And when combined with artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze the deluge of data, the privacy risks grow exponentially. What Are Ultra-Sensitive Quantum Sensors? Quantum sensors are measurement devices that exploit quantum mechanical phenomena—such as superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference—to achieve sensitivities far beyond those of classical sensors. By harnessing effects at the atomic and subatomic level, they can detect incredibly small changes in physical parameters. In practical terms, this means observing the “unobservable”: tiny signals or hidden objects that were previously out of reach. Quantum sensors routinely attain precision that classical instruments cannot match; for example, certain prototypes are one to two orders of magnitude (10–100×) more sensitive than conventional technology. This leap in sensitivity is opening up a broad range of applications, from scanning deep underground to monitoring human biometrics... --- ### New Hybrid Quantum Monte Carlo Algorithm > Researchers developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical... - Published: 2023-08-07 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/new-hybrid-quantum-monte-carlo/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Researchers Xiaosi Xu and Ying Li have developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical simulations. The breakthrough, published in Quantum in 2023, addresses the notorious sign problem in quantum Monte Carlo calculations – a key issue that causes explosive uncertainty in simulations of electrons and other fermions. By incorporating quantum data into the Monte Carlo sampling process, the new algorithm sharply reduces the bias and error that plague fully classical methods, potentially enabling more precise predictions of molecular energies and material properties on today’s imperfect quantum hardware. Expert CommentaryTechnical ExplanationThe Sign Problem in Quantum Monte CarloQuantum-Assisted Monte Carlo and Bias ReductionBayesian Inference to Reduce Quantum MeasurementsQuantum Resource RequirementsComparison with Other Hybrid ApproachesIndustry and Practical ImpactPharmaceuticals & BiotechMaterials Science & ChemistryQuantum Chemistry and HPC SimulationBusiness PerspectiveFuture OutlookBeijing, August 2023 – A team of physicists has unveiled a new quantum-classical hybrid algorithm that promises to overcome one of the most vexing hurdles in simulating quantum many-body systems. Researchers Xiaosi Xu and Ying Li have developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical simulations. The breakthrough, published in Quantum in 2023, addresses the notorious sign problem in quantum Monte Carlo calculations – a key issue that causes explosive uncertainty in simulations of electrons and other fermions. By incorporating quantum data into the Monte Carlo sampling process, the new algorithm sharply reduces the bias and error that plague fully classical methods, potentially enabling more precise predictions of molecular energies and material properties on today’s imperfect quantum hardware. Experts say this development could accelerate progress toward practical quantum advantage in fields ranging from chemistry to materials science. Expert Commentary Quantum computing experts are hailing the hybrid approach as an important milestone on the road to useful quantum algorithms. William Huggins of Google Quantum AI, who helped pioneer early quantum-classical Monte Carlo techniques, noted that combining small quantum computations with classical Monte Carlo “offers an alternative path towards achieving a practical quantum advantage for the electronic structure problem” – without requiring extremely accurate quantum hardware or error-corrected qubits. In 2022, Huggins and colleagues demonstrated the power of this approach by using a 16-qubit quantum processor to guide a classical simulation of a chemical system with 120 orbitals. Remarkably, their hybrid algorithm achieved chemical accuracy on this problem, rivaling state-of-the-art classical methods “without burdensome... --- ### Q-Day Predictions: Anticipating the Arrival of CRQC > While the exact arrival date of Q-Day remains uncertain, the necessity for immediate and strategic preparation does not. - Published: 2023-07-27 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/q-day-crqc-predictions/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: featured, popular While CRQCs capable of breaking current public key encryption algorithms have not yet materialized, technological advancements are pushing us towards what is ominously dubbed 'Q-Day'—the day a CRQC becomes operational. Many experts believe that Q-Day, or Y2Q as it's sometimes called, is just around the corner, suggesting it could occur by 2030 or even sooner; some speculate it may already exist within secret government laboratories. IntroductionBackgroundLogical Qubit vs Physical QubitQuantum SupremacyImpact on CryptographyReasons for CalmRequired CapabilitiesCanary in a Coal MineExpert OpinionStrategic Preparedness and Policy ResponseEnergy Requirements to Break a Single Key with CRQCInability to Keep it SecretReasons for ConcernAdvances in AlgorithmsAdiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)ConclusionIntroduction There is a tremendous amount of hype about quantum computing recently. Governments, corporations, and academic institutions are pouring increasing resources into this field, recognizing its potential to address a wide array of critical scientific and societal challenges. While the technology has begun to affect specific areas, such as the design of efficient batteries for electric vehicles, precision drilling in the oil and gas industry, sophisticated financial analyses, medical research advancements, and improvements in weather prediction models, these applications remain quite narrow. Broader commercial uses hinges on the development of fault-tolerant quantum computing, a goal that still faces many challenges, as we’ll discuss later. One of the most frequently discussed potential applications of quantum computing is its ability to factor large numbers exponentially faster than classical computers, which could make it possible to break the public key encryption that underpins the internet, online banking, secure messaging, cryptocurrencies, control communication to cyber-physical systems, military communications, and more. Sensitive data protected by today's encryption methods, such as financial records, state secrets, and personal information, could suddenly become vulnerable to exposure. Adversaries could take control of critical infrastructure and mount cyber-kinetic attacks with ease. The emergence of such Cryptographically or Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) that will break or weaken existing "classical" cryptography will transform the cybersecurity landscape. While technological advancements are pushing us towards what is ominously dubbed ‘Q-Day’ - the day a CRQC becomes operational - CRQCs capable of breaking current public key encryption algorithms have not yet materialized. Many experts believe that Q-Day, or Y2Q as it’s sometimes called, is just around... --- ### Quantum Readiness for Mission-Critical Communications (MCC) > Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response - Published: 2023-07-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-mcc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: Telecommunications Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response services (police, fire, EMS), military units, utilities, and other critical operators to relay vital information when lives or infrastructure are at stake. These networks prioritize reliability, availability, and resilience – they must remain operational even during disasters or infrastructure outages. For example, in a hurricane that knocks out commercial cell towers and power, robust MCC networks are expected to “rise above” the chaos and keep first responders connected. Communications security is equally paramount: in crisis scenarios, sensitive information (tactical plans, personal data, etc.) must be protected from interception or tampering, even as the network withstands physical disruptions. Introduction to MCC and Quantum ThreatsCryptographic Inventory Challenges in MCC NetworksPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and MCC UpgradesIntegration, Bridging, and Interoperability ConsiderationsBest Practices for MCC Quantum ReadinessGlobal Perspectives and Standardization EffortsIntroduction to MCC and Quantum Threats Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response services (police, fire, EMS), military units, utilities, and other critical operators to relay vital information when lives or infrastructure are at stake. These networks prioritize reliability, availability, and resilience – they must remain operational even during disasters or infrastructure outages. For example, in a hurricane that knocks out commercial cell towers and power, robust MCC networks are expected to “rise above” the chaos and keep first responders connected. Communications security is equally paramount: in crisis scenarios, sensitive information (tactical plans, personal data, etc. ) must be protected from interception or tampering, even as the network withstands physical disruptions. This dual demand for high resilience and strong security defines MCC networks’ unique requirements. I was involved in several MCC projects in my career. Building MCC networks are massive infrastructure projects often costing in tens of billions of dollars and with life expectancy measured in decades. So, of course, they need to worry about the quantum threat. Quantum computers exploit phenomena like superposition and entanglement to solve certain mathematical problems exponentially faster than classical machines. Of particular concern are Shor’s algorithm and Grover’s algorithm, two quantum algorithms that directly undermine current cryptographic foundations. Shor’s algorithm (discovered in 1994) can efficiently factor large integers and compute discrete logarithms, meaning a sufficiently large quantum computer could break RSA encryption and Diffie–Hellman/ECC key exchange in polynomial time. In effect, widely used public-key schemes (RSA, elliptic-curve cryptography) would be rendered insecure by a quantum attacker, as the one-way mathematical problems they rely on become tractable.... --- ### Fidelity in Quantum Computing > While the number of qubits in a quantum processor is an important metric, fidelity and error correction are equally, if not more, significant - Published: 2023-06-19 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fidelity-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Fidelity in quantum computing measures the accuracy of quantum operations, including how effectively a quantum computer can perform calculations without errors. In quantum systems, noise and decoherence can degrade the coherence of quantum states, leading to errors and reduced computational accuracy. Errors are not just common; they're expected. Quantum states are delicate, easily disturbed by external factors like temperature fluctuations, electromagnetic fields, and even stray cosmic rays. IntroductionThe Fidelity ImperativeThe Error Correction ChallengeQuantum Superposition and EntanglementQuantum DecoherenceError Types Are More ComplexResource RequirementsNo Cloning TheoremOther Technical LimitationsError Mitigation? ConclusionIntroduction According to a recent MIT article, IBM aims to build a 100,000 qubit quantum computer within a decade. Google is aiming even higher, aspiring to release a million qubit computer by by the end of the decade. We witness a continuous push towards larger quantum processors with increasing numbers of qubits. IBM is expected to release a 1,000-qubit processor sometime this year. Quantum computing is on the brink of revolutionizing complex problem-solving. However, the practical implementation of quantum algorithms faces significant challenges due to the error-prone nature and hardware limitations of near-term quantum devices. Focusing solely on the number of qubits, as the media and marketing departments continue to do, is a bit of a red herring. Number of qubits is an easily quantifiable metric that keeps increasing every few months suggesting a straightforward path to quantum supremacy—the point at which quantum computers can solve problems beyond the reach of classical supercomputers. However, this emphasis on quantity overlooks the quality of the computational process itself. A qubit, or quantum bit, is the quantum version of the classical binary bit. It is the basic unit of quantum information, capable of representing and processing complex data through states of superposition and entanglement. At first glance, it seems logical to assume that more qubits mean a more powerful quantum computer. However, this perspective neglects a critical factor that is equally, if not more, important: fidelity. The Fidelity Imperative Fidelity in quantum computing measures the accuracy of quantum operations, including how effectively a quantum computer can perform calculations without errors. In quantum systems, noise and decoherence can degrade the coherence of quantum states, leading to errors and reduced computational accuracy. Errors are not... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Supply Chain & Logistics > Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally... - Published: 2023-06-10 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-logistics/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Supply Chain & Logistics Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally new ways holds the promise of solving the longstanding puzzles of logistics – from finding optimal delivery routes and precise demand forecasts to orchestrating entire global supply networks with unprecedented efficiency. We’ve seen that even in these early stages, quantum technologies are demonstrating value in pilot projects: optimizing routes in near-real time​, improving inventory predictions​, and enabling more resilient planning through fast scenario analysis. IntroductionIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Optimization for Supply Chain ManagementQuantum Computing for Demand ForecastingQuantum-Assisted Risk Management & Resilience PlanningQuantum Cryptography for Secure Logistics & TradeQuantum Solutions for Inventory & Manufacturing LogisticsPost-Quantum Security Challenges in Supply ChainsThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction ​Quantum computing is poised to be a game-changer for industries that grapple with complex decision-making, and nowhere is this more evident than in supply chain and logistics. Unlike classical computers that process one scenario at a time, quantum computers leverage quantum bits (qubits) to explore countless possibilities in parallel, promising an exponential leap in computing power​. This leap matters because modern supply chains generate enormous data and involve intricate optimization problems—from routing trucks and scheduling factories to balancing inventory across global networks—that often push classical algorithms to their limits. Indeed, many logistics challenges (like the infamous traveling salesman problem for route planning) are so complex that finding optimal solutions in a reasonable time is beyond today’s computers. Quantum machines, however, could tackle these problems by evaluating many potential solutions simultaneously, potentially finding optimal or near-optimal results dramatically faster​. The potential of quantum computing has already captured the imagination of business leaders in finance, healthcare, and logistics, who see it as the next big technological breakthrough​. In the supply chain context, quantum computing’s promise lies in optimization and speed. For example, a quantum computer could re-route deliveries in real time during a disruption, or recalculate an entire production schedule on the fly, tasks that would overwhelm conventional systems. Early estimates suggest quantum algorithms might eventually solve certain supply chain optimizations 100+ times faster than classical methods​. Even a modest improvement can be transformative: a 1-2% gain in fleet efficiency or warehouse throughput (often achievable with quantum-inspired methods today) can save millions of dollars in fuel and operating... --- ### Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL) Risk > "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL) is a cybersecurity threat where adversaries collect encrypted data today to decrypt it in the future - Published: 2023-06-08 - Modified: 2024-06-07 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/harvest-now-decrypt-later-hndl/ - Categories: Post-Quantum "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL), also known as "Store Now, Decrypt Later" (SNDL), is a concerning risk where adversaries collect encrypted data with the intent to decrypt it once quantum computing becomes capable of breaking current encryption methods. This is the quantum computing's ticking time bomb, with potential implications for every encrypted byte of data currently considered secure. IntroductionQuantum Computing and Encryption VulnerabilityHarvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL)How Real is the Threat? What Can You Do Today? Introduction Advances in quantum computing promise a new era in computing leading to signifiant breakthroughs in solving many scientific challenges or tackling major societal challenges such as the climate change. No, really. However, this advancement also brings the risk of a "quantum apocalypse," as the quantum computer's potential to exponentially speed up the factoring of large numbers threatens to weaken various forms of modern cryptography and break public key encryption systems that secure the internet, online banking, secure messaging, military systems, and much more. Such capabilities could lead to the day ominously known as "Q-Day," when cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) might render current encryption obsolete. While the Q-Day is not expected any time soon (see my article "Q-Day Predictions: Anticipating the Arrival of Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC)") there are urgent reasons to consider the impact of quantum computing now. For instance, if you are developing systems with a lifespan expected to surpass the advent of reliable quantum computing, you should definitely start looking into quantum-resistant or post-quantum cryptography (PQC) now. Additionally, reliance on encryption to protect sensitive data in along run may be misplaced, as quantum computing could eventually lead to adversaries decrypting the sensitive data encrypted by the contemporary encryption methods. "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL), also known as "Store Now, Decrypt Later" (SNDL), is a concerning risk where adversaries collect encrypted data with the intent to decrypt it once quantum computing becomes capable of breaking current encryption methods. This is the quantum computing's ticking time bomb, with potential implications for every encrypted byte of data currently considered secure. Quantum Computing and Encryption Vulnerability Traditional encryption, the backbone of digital security since the 1970s, relies on the complexity of... --- ### Post-Quantum Cryptography PQC Challenges > While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant PQC challenges that must be understood and addressed... - Published: 2023-06-01 - Modified: 2024-06-07 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-pqc-challenges/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The transition to post-quantum cryptography is a complex, multi-faceted process that requires careful planning, significant investment, and a proactive, adaptable approach. By addressing these challenges head-on and preparing for the dynamic cryptographic landscape of the future, organizations can achieve crypto-agility and secure their digital assets against the emerging quantum threat. IntroductionAlgorithm Maturity and StandardizationPerformance Challenges with Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Implementation ComplexityCompliance and Regulatory ChallengesCostConclusionIntroduction As the quantum threat approaches, the need to prepare our cryptographic systems has never been more critical. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) is positioned as THE solution to protect data and communications against the quantum computers. One common misconception I frequently observe among my clients is the belief that once the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) releases its PQC standards, implementing these new solutions will be simple and straightforward, instantly making their systems compliant and secure. Unfortunately, the reality is far more complex. While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant challenges that must be addressed. Algorithm Maturity and Standardization While significant progress has been made, many PQC algorithms are still in the experimental phase and have not yet undergone the extensive testing and validation that current cryptographic standards have. PQC algorithms are designed to withstand the capabilities of quantum computers, which can break classical cryptographic methods such as RSA and ECC. Bodies like the NIST have been at the forefront of developing and standardizing these new algorithms. NIST’s Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Project, initiated in 2016, aims to evaluate and endorse quantum-resistant algorithms. Although several promising candidates have emerged, they have not yet reached the level of maturity required for widespread adoption. Many of these algorithms are still undergoing rigorous testing to evaluate their security, performance, and practicality. Unlike classical algorithms, which have been tested and validated over decades, PQC algorithms are relatively new and must prove their resilience against both classical and quantum attacks. This process involves extensive cryptanalysis, implementation trials, and real-world testing, which takes time and resources. The standardization process for PQC is ongoing, and it is essential for organizations to stay informed about developments from bodies like NIST.... --- ### Quantum Errors and Quantum Error Correction Methods > Quantum error correction (QEC) is critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum... - Published: 2023-05-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-error-correction/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum error correction (QEC) is therefore critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum computer can continue to operate correctly even when individual operations or qubits error out. Unlike classical error correction – which can simply duplicate bits and use majority vote – quantum error correction must delicately handle qubit errors indirectly (via entanglement and syndrome measurements) to avoid collapsing the quantum information. The development of QEC codes in the mid-1990s proved that robust quantum computation is possible in principle, so long as the physical error rates are below a certain threshold. Below this error-rate “threshold,” encoding qubits in larger codes yields exponentially suppressed logical error rates, enabling in theory arbitrarily long quantum computations. Achieving and operating below these error thresholds is one of the grand challenges on the road to practical quantum computers. IntroductionTypes of Quantum ErrorsComparison with Classical Error CorrectionCategories of Quantum Error Correction ApproachesQuantum Error Correcting Codes (QECCs)Bosonic Codes (for bosonic qubits)Error Mitigation Techniques (for near-term devices)Comparison of Quantum Error Correction MethodsFuture Prospects and ChallengesIntroduction Quantum computers process information using qubits that can exist in superposition states, unlike classical bits which are strictly 0 or 1. This enhanced power comes at the cost of quantum errors, which differ fundamentally from classical bit-flip errors. Qubits are highly susceptible to disturbances from their environment (decoherence) and imperfect operations, causing random changes in their state. Not only can a qubit’s value flip (0↦1 or 1↦0), but its phase can also flip (altering the relative sign of superposed states) without changing the bit value. Because qubits cannot be measured or copied without disturbing their state (due to the no-cloning theorem), these errors accumulate quickly and corrupt computational results if uncorrected. Quantum error correction (QEC) is therefore critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum computer can continue to operate correctly even when individual operations or qubits error out. Unlike classical error correction – which can simply duplicate bits and use majority vote – quantum error correction must delicately handle qubit errors indirectly (via entanglement and syndrome measurements) to avoid collapsing the quantum information. The development of QEC codes in the mid-1990s proved that robust quantum computation is possible in principle, so long as the physical error rates are below a certain threshold. Below this error-rate “threshold,” encoding qubits in larger codes yields exponentially suppressed logical error rates, enabling in theory arbitrarily long quantum computations. Achieving and operating below these error thresholds is one of the grand challenges on the road to practical quantum computers. Types of Quantum Errors Quantum errors can be classified by how they disturb the qubit’s state.... --- ### Quantum Era Demands Changes to ALL Enterprise Systems > Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. It is not just about changes to a few systems; it requires an enterprise-wide... - Published: 2023-05-08 - Modified: 2024-06-08 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-enterprise-changes/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In my work with various clients, I frequently encounter a significant misunderstanding about the scope of preparations required to become quantum ready. Many assume that the transition to a post-quantum world will be straightforward, involving only minor patches to a few systems or simple upgrades to hardware security modules (HSMs). Unfortunately, this is a dangerous misconception. Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. IntroductionAffected Categories of Enterprise SystemsOperating Systems (OS)Internal Business Operational SystemsFinancial SystemsCommunication Platforms --- ### Report "The Quantum Threat to the US Financial System" > Report published. Claiming a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could lead to losses of between $2 and $3.3 trillion in GDP. - Published: 2023-04-03 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-us-financial-system/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States A new, interesting, report was just published by the Hudson institute - "Prosperity at Risk: The Quantum Computer Threat to the US Financial System," authored by Alexander W. Butler and Arthur Herman of the Quantum Alliance Initiative at the Hudson Institute. This comprehensive study explores potential threats posed by quantum computing to the U. S. financial system, emphasizing the urgent need for quantum-safe encryption and proactive policy measures. One of the most interesting statements in the report claim that due to the interconnectedness of the financial digital systems, and based on researchers' economic analysis, they estimate that a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could result in significant financial disruptions, causing liquidity crises and contractual breaches. This could lead to a decline in annual real GDP ranging from 10% to 17%, with potential losses between $2 and $3. 3 trillion in GDP. The full report is available here: https://www. hudson. org/technology/prosperity-risk-quantum-computer-threat-us-financial-system/ --- ### Inside NIST’s PQC: Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ > In 2022 NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption... - Published: 2023-03-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nists-pqc-technical/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In 2022, after a multi-year evaluation, NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption (key encapsulation) and digital signatures. Kyber is an encryption/key-establishment scheme (a Key Encapsulation Mechanism, KEM) based on lattice problems, while Dilithium (also lattice-based) and SPHINCS+ (hash-based) are digital signature schemes. IntroductionCRYSTALS-Kyber: Lattice-Based Key Encapsulation MechanismKey GenerationEncapsulation (Encryption)Decapsulation (Decryption)Fujisaki-Okamoto (FO) Transform for CCA SecurityKyber Performance and ParametersCRYSTALS-Dilithium: Lattice-Based Digital SignaturesKey GenerationSignature GenerationVerificationDilithium Parameters and EfficiencySPHINCS+: Stateless Hash-Based SignaturesHigh-Level StructureKey GenerationSignature GenerationPutting it togetherSecurityComparison with Classical Cryptography (RSA, ECC)Security BasisKey Sizes and StructuresEfficiency (Speed)Ciphertext/Signature OverheadCertificates and Protocol IntegrationSummaryComparison with Other Post-Quantum Candidates (not selected by NIST)NTRU and NTRU Prime (Lattice – NTRU Family)Saber (Lattice – Module-LWR)BIKE and HQC (Code-Based KEMs)Rainbow (Multivariate Signature)PICNIC (Symmetric-based Signature)SIKE (Isogeny-based KEM)Implementation Considerations and Real-World DeploymentSoftware Performance and BenchmarksProtocol Integration (TLS, IPsec, etc. )Challenges in Real-World AdoptionBenchmarks on Different PlatformsMemory and Network ConsiderationsBackward CompatibilityRegulatory and ComplianceSummarySecurity Assumptions and Known Attack VectorsResistance to Quantum AttacksClassical CryptanalysisSide-Channel AttacksDecryption Failure AttacksKnown Weaknesses or Open QuestionsPost-Quantum Safety of Symmetric PrimitivesOngoing AnalysisIntroduction The race to develop post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has produced new algorithms designed to withstand attacks by quantum computers. In 2022, after a multi-year evaluation, NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption (key encapsulation) and digital signatures. Kyber is an encryption/key-establishment scheme (a Key Encapsulation Mechanism, KEM) based on lattice problems, while Dilithium (also lattice-based) and SPHINCS+ (hash-based) are digital signature schemes. This article provides a technical deep dive into how these algorithms work, analyzes their mathematical foundations, and compares them with classical schemes (RSA, ECC) and other PQC candidates (NTRU, BIKE, Rainbow, etc. ). We also discuss implementation considerations (performance benchmarks, protocol integration, adoption challenges) and examine their security assumptions and known attack vectors (resistance to quantum/classical attacks, potential weaknesses). CRYSTALS-Kyber: Lattice-Based Key Encapsulation Mechanism Kyber is an IND-CCA2 secure KEM whose security relies on the hardness of the Learning-with-Errors (LWE) problem over module lattices. In simple terms, LWE asks one to solve noisy linear equations in a high-dimensional vector space, which is believed to be intractable even for quantum adversaries. Kyber uses... --- ### Quantum Networks 101: An Intro for Cyber Professionals > Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the internet - Published: 2023-03-08 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-networks-101/ - Categories: Quantum Networks - Tags: featured Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the classical internet. They hold the promise of fundamentally secure communications and new quantum information capabilities. While challenges remain, the continuous advances in hardware and protocols, bolstered by significant global investments, make it likely that many of us will experience the quantum network revolution within our careers. Introduction to Quantum NetworksKey Technologies in Quantum NetworkingFiber-Based Quantum NetworksSatellite-Based Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)Free-Space Optical Quantum LinksHybrid Quantum Networks (Multimodal)Fundamental Principles of Quantum NetworkingEntanglement DistributionQuantum TeleportationQuantum Repeaters and Error CorrectionBell Inequalities and Security TestsComparison with Classical Networks --- ### Google Claims Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction > Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step towards... - Published: 2023-02-24 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-breakthrough-error-correction/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step toward overcoming the most challenging technical barrier in developing this revolutionary technology. The findings were published in the journal Nature. Quantum computers face difficulties in producing useful results because qubits, the fundamental units of quantum information, maintain their quantum states for only a fraction of a second. This fleeting stability results in information loss before calculations can be completed. Addressing these errors is the primary technical challenge in the industry. While some quantum startups focus on programming today’s error-prone, or “noisy,” machines for marginal improvements over traditional computers, these efforts have yet to yield practical results. The consensus is growing that quantum computing will only become useful once the error correction problem is resolved. Google’s researchers have developed a method to distribute information across multiple qubits, allowing the system to retain enough information to complete calculations despite individual qubits losing their quantum states. Their research demonstrated a 4 percent reduction in the error rate as they scaled up their technique to a larger quantum system. Importantly, this marks the first instance where increasing the system size did not result in a higher error rate. This achievement shows Google has reached a “break-even point,” paving the way for continuous performance improvements and progress toward a practical quantum computer. The breakthrough was achieved through enhancements in all components of Google’s quantum computer, including the quality of qubits, control software, and cryogenic equipment used to maintain near-absolute zero temperatures. Google described this breakthrough as only the second of six steps necessary to develop a practical quantum computer. The next step involves refining their engineering to require only 1,000 qubits to create a “logical qubit”—an error-free abstraction built on top of imperfect physical qubits. For more details... --- ### Quantum Radar: The Next Frontier of Stealth Detection and Beyond > Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. - Published: 2023-02-15 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-radar/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. In theory, it promises detection capabilities beyond the reach of conventional radar, potentially piercing the invisibility of stealth aircraft and opening new possibilities in sensing. From its conceptual origins in quantum physics labs to recent experimental prototypes, quantum radar has become a hot topic in defense tech circles and beyond. In this article, we explore what quantum radar is, how it works, its development history, key experiments, applications in military and civilian domains, its current status and challenges, comparisons with classical radar, the security implications of its adoption, the role of AI in enhancing it, and what the future might hold for this quantum-powered sensor. What is Quantum Radar? History and EvolutionKey Papers and ExperimentsUse Cases and ApplicationsMilitary and DefenseCivilian, Scientific, and Other ApplicationsCurrent Status of Quantum Radar DevelopmentComparison with Classical RadarSecurity, Ethical, and Geopolitical ImplicationsAI and Quantum Radar: A Powerful CombinationFuture OutlookQuantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. In theory, it promises detection capabilities beyond the reach of conventional radar, potentially piercing the invisibility of stealth aircraft and opening new possibilities in sensing. From its conceptual origins in quantum physics labs to recent experimental prototypes, quantum radar has become a hot topic in defense tech circles and beyond. In this article, we explore what quantum radar is, how it works, its development history, key experiments, applications in military and civilian domains, its current status and challenges, comparisons with classical radar, the security implications of its adoption, the role of AI in enhancing it, and what the future might hold for this quantum-powered sensor. What is Quantum Radar? Quantum radar is essentially a radar system that exploits quantum-mechanical phenomena—such as entanglement and other non-classical correlations—to detect objects with greater sensitivity or in conditions where classical radars struggle. In a traditional radar, a transmitter sends out electromagnetic waves (often microwaves or radio waves) and a receiver listens for any reflection (echo) from a target. The strength and timing of that echo reveal the target’s distance and perhaps its size or speed. Quantum radar, by contrast, doesn’t just send out a generic signal; it sends out quantum entangled signals that are intrinsically linked to a reference signal kept at the receiver. Because of this special link, a quantum radar can know if a faint return signal is indeed from its own transmitter or just random noise, potentially allowing it to detect targets that would... --- ### The Future of Digital Signatures in a Post-Quantum World > The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into lattices and hashes... - Published: 2023-02-09 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-digital-signatures/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into the new territory of lattices and hashes. It’s an exciting time for cryptography, and a critical time for security practitioners. Authentication, integrity, and non-repudiation are security properties we must preserve at all costs, even in the face of revolutionary computing technologies. With careful preparation, the transition to quantum-resistant signatures can be smooth, and we’ll retain the strong foundation of digital trust that modern cybersecurity is built on – both now and for decades to come. What Are Digital Signatures and Why Do They Matter? Today’s Digital Signature Landscape: RSA, DSA, and ECDSAThe Quantum Threat: How Shor’s Algorithm Breaks RSA, DSA, and ECDSAEnter Post-Quantum Signatures: Lattices, Hashes, and New MathematicsBeyond the Winners: Other Quantum-Resistant Signature SchemesPractical Challenges: Transitioning to Quantum-Resistant SignaturesConclusion: Preparing for the Post-Quantum Signature EraWhat Are Digital Signatures and Why Do They Matter? Digital signatures are cryptographic tools that ensure a message or document is authentically from a specific sender, unaltered in transit, and cannot be disowned by the signer. In technical terms, a digital signature provides origin authentication, data integrity, and signer non-repudiation. Unlike a simple checksum or handwritten signature, a digital signature uses mathematics and cryptography to bind a person or entity to the digital data in a way that anyone can independently verify. Under the hood, digital signatures rely on public-key cryptography. The signer holds a private key used to generate the signature, and recipients use the corresponding public key to verify it. Typically, the signer hashes the message (to create a fixed-size digest) and then uses a mathematical algorithm with the private key to produce a signature on that digest. The verifier repeats the hashing and uses the signer’s public key to check that the signature is valid for that message digest. If the signature verifies, the recipient gains high confidence that (1) the message indeed came from the holder of the private key (authenticity), (2) it wasn’t tampered with en route (integrity), and (3) the sender cannot later deny having signed it (non-repudiation). This capability is a cornerstone of cybersecurity — from authenticating software updates and TLS certificates to securing blockchain transactions and electronic documents. Today’s Digital Signature Landscape: RSA, DSA, and ECDSA Over the past few decades, a few digital signature algorithms have become ubiquitous. RSA, DSA, and... --- ### Quantum Sensing - Introduction and Taxonomy > Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental... - Published: 2023-02-08 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-intro-taxonomy/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and more – means it can achieve what was once thought impossible: detecting the seemingly undetectable. This field stands at a nexus between quantum physics and the real world, turning esoteric quantum effects into practical tools. As the technology matures, we will gain new eyes and ears (and noses and fingers, metaphorically) for science and industry. We’ll “see” underground structures without digging, “hear” the whispers of neuronal electric currents without probes, “feel” the drift of time in different gravitational potentials, and maybe even sniff out particles from beyond the Standard Model. IntroductionTheoretical GroundworkKey Challenges and RoadblocksFragility and Environmental IsolationSize, Weight, and Power (SWaP)Complexity and CostComparison with Improving Classical SensorsScalability and Production ChallengesCryogenics and Cooling RequirementsCalibration and StandardizationRegulatory and Security IssuesEthical and Privacy ConcernsA Taxonomy of Quantum SensorsAtom- and Ion-Based SensorsPhotonic and Light-Based SensorsMagnetometryRF and Microwave Quantum SensorsQuantum Thermometry and Other Niche SensorsFuture Prospects and ConclusionIntroduction Quantum sensing—the science of exploiting quantum phenomena like entanglement, superposition, and squeezed states—represents a dramatic leap in how we measure and interpret the world around us. While many modern instruments already rely on quantum principles (e. g. , lasers in optical scanners, quantum transitions in atomic clocks), the new wave of quantum sensors takes this integration further. By intentionally harnessing quantum effects to surpass classical limits, these devices promise sensitivity and precision that could revolutionize industries from healthcare to defense. Much of the early theoretical groundwork for quantum sensing was laid in research by Lloyd (2008) on quantum illumination, and later expanded by Tan, Pirandola, and Shapiro (2009), demonstrating how entangled photons might improve target detection in noisy environments. That same decade saw accelerating progress in cold-atom sensors (Kasevich & Chu, 1991; Peters et al. , 1999), which proved matter-wave interferometry could yield ultrahigh sensitivity for measuring gravitational fields. Seminal developments like these inspired further exploration of specialized sensing platforms, from superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) in magnetometry to nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in diamond for magnetic, thermal, and electric field sensing. Despite the rapid advancements, key challenges remain before quantum sensors achieve widespread deployment. Fragility and environmental isolation requirements often restrict these sensors to laboratory settings. Efforts in miniaturization and packaging—such as chip-scale atomic clocks and vapor-cell magnetometers—are bridging the gap, but cryogenics, specialized laser systems, and the need for robust shielding continue to limit practical rollout. Moreover, standardization and calibration pose significant hurdles. Many quantum... --- ### Scientists Achieve Entanglement Between Two Light Sources > In a new study, researchers managed to create entanglement between two quantum emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly... - Published: 2023-01-29 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/two-light-sources-entanglement/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe Researchers from the University of Copenhagen and Ruhr University Bochum have made a significant breakthrough in quantum technology by achieving controlled interaction between two quantum light sources, or quantum emitters, embedded in a nanophotonic waveguide. This development, reported in Science, is a foundational step toward building scalable quantum computers and enhancing quantum communication systems. In simple terms, quantum emitters are particles that can release light in the form of photons. In this study, researchers managed to create entanglement between these emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly, regardless of the physical distance between them. This breakthrough makes it possible to control not just one, but two quantum emitters simultaneously. The long-term goal is to use 20-30 such entangled quantum sources to develop powerful quantum computers capable of solving problems far beyond today's supercomputers. The challenge had been controlling multiple quantum emitters in a highly precise and quiet environment, but the researchers overcame this by creating nanochips designed to control these emitters in unison. The successful entanglement opens the door to advanced quantum information processing and sets the stage for the development of error-corrected quantum computers. This achievement is crucial because it takes a big step towards scalable quantum technology. However, more work remains to scale from two emitters to larger networks that could form the core of future quantum computers and communication systems​. For more details, see the paper available here: Collective super- and subradiant dynamics between distant optical quantum emitters. --- ### Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) > Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity... - Published: 2023-01-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity. In this article, we’ve seen that CRQCs are defined by their ability to execute quantum algorithms (like Shor’s and Grover’s) at a scale that breaks the cryptographic primitives we rely on daily. While still likely years (if not a decade or more) away, their eventual arrival is not a question of “if” but “when,” according to most experts​. IntroductionDefinition of CRQCCRQC vs Early-stage (NISQ) DevicesWhy CRQCs Matter for CybersecurityTheoretical FoundationsQuantum Computing PrinciplesQuantum Speedups in CryptographyImpact on RSA/ECC vs Symmetric CryptoQuantum Computational Power and CryptanalysisAchieving Quantum Speedup Beyond NISQQubit Counts to Break RSA/ECCError Correction and the Road to Fault ToleranceTimeline for CRQC RealizationCryptographic ImplicationsVulnerable Cryptographic ProtocolsPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) – Quantum-Resistant AlgorithmsMigration Challenges for Enterprises and GovernmentsBroader Cybersecurity ImplicationsQuantum-Enhanced Attacks Beyond CryptanalysisQuantum-Aided Security ToolsSupply Chain Security Risks in the Quantum EraIndustry and Research EffortsMajor Industry PlayersAcademic Consortia and ResearchNational InitiativesConclusionIntroduction Definition of CRQC A Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer (CRQC) is a quantum computing system powerful enough to break modern cryptographic algorithms that secure digital communications​. In practical terms, a CRQC is a large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer capable of running quantum algorithms (like Shor’s algorithm) to crack the cryptographic schemes (e. g. , RSA or ECC) that underlie today’s security. It contrasts with the small, noisy quantum processors we have now in that it can reliably perform long computations needed to attack encryption. CRQC vs Early-stage (NISQ) Devices Today’s quantum machines are in the Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) era. NISQ devices contain tens to a few hundred qubits and suffer high error rates, preventing sustained calculations​. They are not yet fault-tolerant – meaning they cannot correct errors on the fly – so their algorithms must be very short before noise overwhelms the result. A CRQC, by contrast, would have thousands (or more) of effective, error-corrected qubits and low error rates, allowing it to run complex algorithms far beyond NISQ capabilities. Essentially, NISQ machines might demonstrate “quantum supremacy” on niche problems, but they cannot break RSA or other cryptography; a CRQC would be able to, because it operates beyond the NISQ regime​. Why CRQCs Matter for Cybersecurity Modern cybersecurity fundamentally relies on cryptography – protocols like TLS, VPNs, digital signatures, and secure... --- ### Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act > On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H.R.7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act... - Published: 2022-12-23 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-preparedness-act/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H. R. 7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act, into law. This legislation urges federal agencies to upgrade their technologies to defend against potential quantum computing threats. The act is a crucial step in the United States' strategy to enhance its cybersecurity infrastructure in anticipation of advancements in quantum computing, which poses a serious risk to current cryptographic standards. The law mandates that federal agencies begin transitioning their systems to post-quantum cryptography, which is designed to be secure against both quantum computers and traditional computational threats. This move is part of a broader effort outlined in several key initiatives throughout the past just over a year aimed at bolstering the nation's quantum resilience: State Department Initiatives: Early in the year, on January 19, the State Department released a memorandum demanding that agencies identify and rectify any encryption protocols not aligned with NSA-approved Quantum Resistant Algorithms within six months. National Security Memorandum: On May 4, the administration issued National Security Memorandum 10 (NSM-10), promoting leadership in quantum computing while addressing vulnerabilities in cryptographic systems. OMB Memorandum: In November, Office of Management and Budget Director Shalanda D. Young issued a directive outlining steps for federal agencies to transition to Post-Quantum Cybersecurity (PQC), including creating a prioritized inventory of cryptographic systems. DHS Memorandum on Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography: In September 2021 the US Department of Homeland Security issued a memorandum "Preparing for Post-Quantum Security" providing guidance to Component Heads to begin preparing for a transition from current cryptography standards to post-quantum encryption now. Under the new law, federal agencies have six months to develop and implement a strategy for migrating to quantum-resistant cryptographic technologies. They are also required to maintain an inventory of current IT systems that are susceptible to quantum decryption.... --- ### 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published > 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - Published: 2022-12-15 - Modified: 2024-05-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/2022-quantum-threat-timeline-report/ - Categories: Industry News The "2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report" by the Global Risk Institute, authored by Dr. Michele Mosca and Dr. Marco Piani from evolutionQ Inc. was just published. This report provides analysis of the quantum threat landscape and tries to predict the arrival of the Q-Day by polling a number of global quantum computing experts. The report emphasizes the urgent need for a transition to quantum-safe cryptography. This transition involves developing and deploying new cryptographic tools, establishing standards, and migrating legacy systems. The report outlines three key parameters that determine the urgency of this transition: the shelf-life of the data, the migration time required for safe transition, and the threat timeline, which is the focus of this report. The most interesting part of the report is the summary of expert opinions on quantum threat timeline. The authors surveyed 40 international leaders from academia and industry working on quantum computing. These experts provided their best estimates for the likelihood of developing a cryptographically-relevant quantum computer (CRQC) within various timeframes. The survey results indicate that the quantum threat will become significant relatively quickly, with a notable portion of experts predicting a non-negligible threat within the next 10 years. The report further highlights the leading physical platforms for quantum computing, including superconducting systems and trapped ions. It also discusses recent advances in cold-atoms quantum computing. The experts provided their estimates for the likelihood of developing a quantum computer capable of breaking RSA-2048 encryption within different timeframes, indicating an increasing likelihood as we look further into the future. The report also examines the impact of societal and funding factors on the development of quantum computers. It notes that while the level of global funding for quantum computing is expected to continue increasing, the pace may not be as rapid as in recent years. The report emphasizes... --- ### IBM Osprey: A 433-Qubit Quantum Leap > IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of 2022 - Published: 2022-11-30 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-osprey/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of its 2022 debut. Revealed at the IBM Quantum Summit in November 2022, Osprey more than triples the qubit count of IBM’s previous 127-qubit Eagle chip​. IBM says this new processor “brings us a step closer to the point where quantum computers will be used to tackle previously unsolvable problems,” according to Dr. Darío Gil, IBM’s Director of Research​. In principle, a state on the 433-qubit Osprey has an information content so enormous that the number of classical bits required to represent it “far exceeds” the total number of atoms in the known universe​. While practical quantum applications remain nascent, the Osprey chip’s sheer scale marks a major milestone in the quest to transcend classical computing limits.​ Largest Superconducting Processor to Date – and Why It MattersEngineering Breakthroughs Under the HoodMaintaining Qubit Quality at ScaleComparisons with Eagle, Sycamore, and ZuchongzhiImplications for the Industry and What Comes NextYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2022) – IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of its 2022 debut. Revealed at the IBM Quantum Summit in November 2022, Osprey more than triples the qubit count of IBM’s previous 127-qubit Eagle chip​. IBM says this new processor “brings us a step closer to the point where quantum computers will be used to tackle previously unsolvable problems,” according to Dr. Darío Gil, IBM’s Director of Research​. In principle, a state on the 433-qubit Osprey has an information content so enormous that the number of classical bits required to represent it “far exceeds” the total number of atoms in the known universe​. While practical quantum applications remain nascent, the Osprey chip’s sheer scale marks a major milestone in the quest to transcend classical computing limits. ​ Largest Superconducting Processor to Date – and Why It Matters Osprey’s 433 qubits vault IBM well ahead of prior superconducting quantum efforts in raw qubit count. Its predecessor Eagle (127 qubits) had only broken the 100-qubit barrier a year earlier in 2021​​. Competing devices like Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore (which achieved the first quantum “supremacy” demonstration in 2019) and China’s Zuchongzhi processors (66 qubits) now look modest by comparison in size​​. Scale is not everything, but it is a critical ingredient: more qubits allow more complex computations and larger entangled states. In fact, in 2021 a Chinese team led by Jian-Wei Pan used a 56-qubit subset of their 66-qubit Zuchongzhi 2. 0 processor to perform a random circuit sampling task beyond what Google’s... --- ### Entanglement Distribution Techniques in Quantum Networks > Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical... - Published: 2022-11-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-distribution/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical means. Distributing entanglement between distant locations is essential for applications such as quantum key distribution (QKD), quantum teleportation, and connecting quantum computers for distributed quantum computing​. Introduction to Entanglement DistributionDirect TransmissionEntanglement Swapping Across NodesEntanglement Purification and Error RatesCurrent Real-World State of Entanglement DistributionFuture Outlook and ChallengesIntroduction to Entanglement Distribution Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical means. Distributing entanglement between distant locations is essential for applications such as quantum key distribution (QKD), quantum teleportation, and connecting quantum computers for distributed quantum computing​. In QKD, for example, shared entangled pairs can be used to generate encryption keys with security guaranteed by quantum physics. In quantum computing, entanglement between remote qubits allows quantum information to be transmitted via teleportation, effectively “networking” quantum processors. Thus, a quantum network must be able to deliver entangled qubits between nodes on demand, analogous to how classical networks deliver bits. Bell states (also known as EPR pairs) are the fundamental two-qubit entangled states that serve as the building blocks for distributed entanglement​. These four maximally entangled two-qubit states form an orthonormal basis. In Dirac notation, they are typically given by: $$|\Phi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle + |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Phi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle - |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle + |10\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle - |10\rangle\big)$$ Each Bell state represents a pair of qubits (say held by Alice and Bob) that are perfectly correlated (or anti-correlated) in a specific basis. If Alice and Bob share a Bell state, a measurement on Alice’s qubit instantly collapses Bob’s qubit to a state consistent with the Bell state’s correlations. This nonlocal correlation is the essence of entanglement. Entangled photon pairs are a common physical instantiation of Bell states, often generated via spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) or similar nonlinear optical processes​. These photon pairs, when sent to two distant parties, can distribute entanglement to serve as the “links” in a quantum network. Entangled photon pair sources and Bell states underpin essentially all entanglement... --- ### Cat Qubits 101 > Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat... - Published: 2022-10-26 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cat-qubits-101/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators (e.g. modes of a microwave cavity) that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat superposition. Instead of relying on a single two-level quantum element, a cat qubit stores information in two coherent states of a harmonic oscillator and their quantum superposition. This approach is promising for quantum computing because it inherently protects the qubit from certain errors. In particular, cat qubits can suppress bit-flip errors by encoding 0/1 as two “classical-like” oscillator states that are very different (opposite phases) and thus unlikely to be confused by random noise. This means fewer physical qubits may be needed for error correction: increasing the energy (photon number) of the oscillator makes bit-flips exponentially rare , potentially reducing error-correction overhead by up to an order of magnitude. IntroductionHow Cat Qubits WorkComparison with Transmon QubitsMathematical BackgroundFirst Academic Paper on Cat QubitsChallenges and Future ProspectsIntroduction Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators (e. g. modes of a microwave cavity) that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat superposition. Instead of relying on a single two-level quantum element, a cat qubit stores information in two coherent states of a harmonic oscillator and their quantum superposition. This approach is promising for quantum computing because it inherently protects the qubit from certain errors. In particular, cat qubits can suppress bit-flip errors by encoding 0/1 as two “classical-like” oscillator states that are very different (opposite phases) and thus unlikely to be confused by random noise. This means fewer physical qubits may be needed for error correction: increasing the energy (photon number) of the oscillator makes bit-flips exponentially rare, potentially reducing error-correction overhead by up to an order of magnitude. By contrast, standard superconducting qubits like transmons encode a qubit in the two lowest energy levels of an anharmonic circuit and suffer from both bit-flip and phase-flip errors at similar rates, requiring heavy error correction. Cat qubits take a different route by using bosonic modes with large state spaces, trading hardware complexity for an improved error profile. This bosonic encoding is an increasingly important strategy on the road to scalable, fault-tolerant quantum computers. How Cat Qubits Work A cat qubit stores quantum information in a superposition of two coherent states of a resonator, often denoted  $$|\alpha\rangle$$  and  $$|-\alpha\rangle$$, which correspond to two opposite-phase oscillation states of the field. These are analogous to two “classical” states (like a pendulum swinging to the right vs. to the left) that a harmonic oscillator can have. The logical qubit states are realized as Schrödinger cat states, for example an “even cat” state proportional to ... --- ### ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study" > The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study" - Published: 2022-10-20 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-integration/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) has released a report titled "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration Study," offering a comprehensive look at the challenges and necessities of integrating post-quantum cryptographic systems. This publication follows ENISA's 2021 study on the current state of post-quantum cryptography and aims to provide a clearer understanding of the post-standardization landscape. The report highlights the critical need to design new cryptographic protocols and effectively integrate post-quantum systems into existing frameworks. As the quantum computing era approaches, ensuring the confidentiality and security of data against quantum-capable attackers is becoming increasingly urgent. ENISA's latest study explores strategic approaches to these challenges, emphasizing the importance of hybrid implementations that combine pre-quantum and post-quantum schemes. For those interested in further details or in accessing the full report, please visit ENISA’s publication page: Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration Study. --- ### Mitigating Quantum Threats Beyond PQC > A common misconception is that adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) alone will solve the problem. There are other mitigation approaches... - Published: 2022-09-01 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/mitigating-quantum-threats-pqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The article explores limitations of PQC and explores alternative and complementary approaches to mitigate quantum risks. It provides technical analysis of each strategy, real-world examples of their deployment, and strategic recommendations for decision-makers. The goal is to illuminate why a diversified cryptographic defense – beyond just rolling out new algorithms – is essential to achieve long-term resilience against quantum-enabled adversaries. IntroductionChallenges and Limitations of PQCAlternative and Complementary Quantum Risk Mitigation StrategiesHybrid Cryptographic ApproachesQuantum Key Distribution (QKD)Reducing the Cryptographic Attack SurfaceSystem Isolation & Air GappingFull System ReplacementQuantum-Safe Hardware Security Modules (HSMs)Quantum-Secure Communication Networks --- ### Introduction to Crypto-Agility > The field of cryptography is about to become much more dynamic. Which will require organizations to become crypto-agile. What is crypto-agility? - Published: 2022-09-01 - Modified: 2024-06-07 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/introduction-crypto-agility/ - Categories: Post-Quantum As we edge closer to the Q-Day—the anticipated moment when quantum computers will be capable of breaking traditional cryptographic systems—the need for crypto-agility becomes increasingly critical. Crypto-agility is the capability of an organization to swiftly and efficiently transition between different cryptographic algorithms and protocols in response to emerging threats and technological advancements. 1. Introduction2. Why Crypto-Agility? Why Now? 3. The Cost of Inaction4. How to Become Crypto-Agile? 4. 1. Engage Stakeholders4. 1. 1. Secure Support from Senior Leadership4. 1. 2. Form a Cross-Functional Team4. 2. Engage External Organizations for Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration4. 2. 1. Engage with NIST and Other Standard Development Organizations4. 2. 2. Collaborate with National Cybersecurity Agencies4. 2. 3. Engage with Academia4. 2. 4. Collaborate with Industry Consortia and Peer Organizations4. 3. Engage Your Third Parties4. 3. 1. Collaborate with Vendors and Third Parties4. 3. 2. Conduct Regular Third-Party Assessments4. 3. 3. Strengthen the Broader Ecosystem4. 4. Conduct a Comprehensive Cryptographic Inventory and Evaluate Vulnerabilities4. 4. 1. Identify and Catalog Cryptographic Assets4. 4. 2. Evaluate Vulnerabilities4. 5. Develop a Crypto-Agility Strategy4. 5. 1. Define Clear Goals4. 5. 2. Create the High-Level Roadmap4. 5. 3. Prioritize for Replacement4. 6. Develop and Implement Cryptographic Policies4. 6. 1. Establish Comprehensive Cryptographic Policies and Procedures4. 6. 2. Implement Procedures for Policy Compliance4. 7. Invest in Training and Education for Crypto-Agility4. 7. 1. Employee Training4. 7. 2. Conduct Awareness Campaigns4. 8. Upgrade Technology and Infrastructure for Crypto-Agility4. 8. 1. Upgrade to Up-to-Date Cryptographic Libraries4. 8. 2. Hardware and Software Upgrades4. 8. 3. Upgrade to Scalable Infrastructure4. 9. Implement Modular and Flexible Cryptographic Systems4. 9. 1. Design for Modularity4. 9. 2. Utilize Standardized Interfaces and APIs4. 9. 3. Streamline Integration and Updates4. 10. Implement Comprehensive Key Management and PKI Strategies4. 10. 1. Implement Comprehensive Key Management Systems4. 10. 2. Enhance PKI Management4. 11. Integrate Crypto-Agile Methodologies into DevOps/DevSecOps Workflows4. 11. 1. Foster a DevSecOps Culture4. 11. 2. Adopt Microservices Architecture4. 11. 3. Automate Cryptographic Management4. 11. 4. Incorporate Security Testing4. 12. Enhance Incident Response and Disaster Recovery for Crypto-Agility4. 12. 1. Update Incident Response Plans4. 12. 2. Update Disaster Recovery Plans4. 13. Establish Continuous Monitoring... --- ### Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Introduction > Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by... - Published: 2022-07-13 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-cryptography-pqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by a future quantum computer. The motivation for PQC is the threat that large-scale quantum computers pose to current cryptographic systems. Today’s widely used public-key schemes – RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic-curve cryptography – rely on mathematical problems (integer factorization, discrete logarithms, etc.) that could be easily solved by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer running Shor’s algorithm​. While current quantum processors are not yet strong enough to break modern crypto​, experts anticipate a “Q-Day” when this becomes feasible. PQC algorithms aim to remain secure against both classical and quantum attacks, protecting sensitive data well into the future. IntroductionHow PQC Differs from Traditional CryptographyThe NIST PQC Standardization Project and FinalistsCRYSTALS-Kyber (KEM)CRYSTALS-Dilithium (Signature)FALCON (Signature)SPHINCS+ (Signature)Other Notable PQC Algorithms and CandidatesInternational PQC Efforts: China and the EUImplications for Industry and Transition StrategiesIntroduction Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by a future quantum computer. The motivation for PQC is the threat that large-scale quantum computers pose to current cryptographic systems. Today’s widely used public-key schemes – RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic-curve cryptography – rely on mathematical problems (integer factorization, discrete logarithms, etc. ) that could be easily solved by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer running Shor’s algorithm​. While current quantum processors are not yet strong enough to break modern crypto​, experts anticipate a “Q-Day” when this becomes feasible. PQC algorithms aim to remain secure against both classical and quantum attacks, protecting sensitive data well into the future. The urgency is heightened by the possibility of “harvest now, decrypt later” attacks – adversaries stealing encrypted data today to decrypt once quantum capabilities arrive​. In contrast, most symmetric algorithms and hash functions are believed to resist quantum attacks (Grover’s algorithm only modestly speeds up brute-force, mitigated by using larger keys)​. Thus, PQC primarily focuses on replacing vulnerable public-key schemes with quantum-resistant alternatives. How PQC Differs from Traditional Cryptography Traditional public-key cryptography (RSA, ECC, DH) is based on problems like factoring large integers or computing discrete logarithms, which are intractable for classical computers but not for quantum computers. PQC, by contrast, uses different mathematical hard problems that have no known efficient quantum algorithms to solve them. These include: Lattice-based problems (e. g. finding short vectors in high-dimensional lattices or solving Learning-With-Errors problems). Code-based problems (decoding random linear codes, as in McEliece encryption). Multivariate quadratic equations (solving large systems of nonlinear equations, as in the... --- ### Quantum Teleportation > Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without... - Published: 2022-06-22 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-teleportation/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without physically sending the particle itself​. Quantum teleportation has become a foundational method in quantum communication, envisioned as a building block for quantum networks and even quantum computing​. In essence, it provides a way to transfer quantum information securely and instantaneously (in principle) across distance – with the crucial caveat that a couple of classical bits must be sent, preserving causality. IntroductionFundamentalsQuantum Teleportation in Quantum NetworksEntanglement Distribution and SwappingUnbreakable Keys and Quantum CryptographyQuantum Key Distribution (QKD) Over Long DistancesNetwork Resilience and Attack ResistanceNew Threats and ConsiderationsFuture OutlookIntroduction Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without physically sending the particle itself​. First proposed theoretically in 1993 by Charles Bennett and colleagues​, quantum teleportation exploits the phenomenon of quantum entanglement to transfer an unknown quantum state via a combination of entangled qubits and classical communication. In 1997, the first experimental demonstration confirmed that a photon's polarization state could indeed be teleported between two labs, marking a milestone in quantum information science​. Since then, quantum teleportation has become a foundational method in quantum communication, envisioned as a building block for quantum networks and even quantum computing​. In essence, it provides a way to transfer quantum information securely and instantaneously (in principle) across distance – with the crucial caveat that a couple of classical bits must be sent, preserving causality. This unique capability has placed quantum teleportation at the heart of designs for a future quantum internet and next-generation secure communication infrastructures. Fundamentals Quantum teleportation relies on entanglement – the “spooky action at a distance” that Albert Einstein skeptically noted. When two qubits are entangled, their states become correlated such that measuring one instantaneously determines the state of the other, no matter how far apart they ar​e. The strongest form of entanglement between two qubits is represented by the four Bell states (also known as EPR pairs). These four states form an orthonormal basis for two-qubit systems and are maximally entangled. In Dirac notation, the Bell states are given by​: $$|\Phi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle + |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Phi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle - |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle + |10\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle -... --- ### Transmon Qubits 101 > Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. - Published: 2022-05-28 - Modified: 2025-02-22 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/transmon-qubits-101/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. In other words, a transmon is a superconducting charge qubit that has reduced sensitivity to charge fluctuations​. The device consists of a Josephson junction (a nonlinear superconducting element) in parallel with a sizable capacitance, which increases the ratio of Josephson energy to charging energy and thus stabilizes the qubit against charge noise​. Key CharacteristicsHow Transmon Qubits WorkAdvantages of Transmon QubitsChallenges:Significance in Quantum ComputingImpact on CybersecuritySummaryTransmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. In other words, a transmon is a superconducting charge qubit that has reduced sensitivity to charge fluctuations​. The device consists of a Josephson junction (a nonlinear superconducting element) in parallel with a sizable capacitance, which increases the ratio of Josephson energy to charging energy and thus stabilizes the qubit against charge noise​. Transmon qubits are one of the most widely used qubit architectures in quantum computing today, employed in many of the processors built by companies like IBM and Google​​ (as well as startups such as Rigetti Computing). Key Characteristics Josephson Junction Circuit: A transmon is implemented as a superconducting circuit with a Josephson junction (nonlinear inductor) shunted by a large capacitor. This forms an anharmonic oscillator that operates at microwave frequencies (typically in the 3–6 GHz range)​, which allows quantum states to be manipulated with microwave pulses. Reduced Charge Noise Sensitivity: Compared to the earlier Cooper-pair box qubit, transmons are far less sensitive to stray charge on the circuit. The large shunt capacitor makes the qubit’s energy levels nearly independent of background charge fluctuations​, significantly reducing dephasing from charge noise. Cryogenic Operation: Transmon qubits only function in an ultra-cold environment. They require dilution refrigerator temperatures on the order of ~10–20 millikelvin to maintain superconductivity and quantum coherence​. This cryogenic requirement ensures minimal thermal noise but adds complexity to the hardware setup. How Transmon Qubits Work A transmon qubit typically consists of a small superconducting island or loop interrupted by a Josephson junction, with a large capacitor shunting the junction. The quantum state of the qubit is encoded in the relative quantum phase across the Josephson... --- ### White House - Quantum Related National Security Memorandum > On May 4, 2022, the White House issued National Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing... - Published: 2022-05-07 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/white-house-quantum-security-memo/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On May 4, 2022, the White House issued a significant policy directive through the "National Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing While Mitigating Risks to Vulnerable Cryptographic Systems" or NSM-10. The memorandum highlights the urgency of developing quantum-resistant cryptographic systems to protect against potential threats posed by quantum computers, which could compromise current cryptographic defenses. This policy initiative sets forth a comprehensive strategy that includes establishing a migration project to post-quantum cryptography at the National Cybersecurity Center of Excellence. This project will collaborate with the private sector to tackle the cybersecurity challenges posed by the transition to quantum-resistant cryptography. Additionally, the memorandum mandates regular engagements and reports concerning the risks quantum computers pose, emphasizing the need for an updated inventory of cryptographic systems across federal agencies. Furthermore, the memorandum underscores the necessity for Federal agencies to update their cryptographic systems to withstand quantum computing threats, highlighting an integrated approach across governmental and private sectors to accelerate the adoption of secure cryptographic standards. More specifically, the memorandum sets a target year of 2035 for the transition to quantum-resistant cryptographic systems. To facilitate this transition, the implementation of cryptographic agility frameworks is prioritized. Both the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the National Security Agency (NSA) are pivotal in this effort, tasked with developing and setting technical standards expected to be ratified by 2024. This section also outlines a comprehensive timeline for agency actions over the next year, with ongoing reporting obligations extending into the future. Next section of the memorandum highlights the critical need to safeguard relevant quantum Research & Development (R&D) and intellectual property (IP) from potential threats such as cybercrime and theft. The U. S. government is committed to launching educational campaigns targeting various sectors including industry, academia, and state and local entities. These... --- ### Dos & Don'ts of Crypto Inventories for Quantum Readiness > Manual, interview-based, surrvey-based, spreadsheet-based cryptographic inventories are insufficient and potentially detrimental... - Published: 2022-05-05 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/manual-cryptographic-inventories/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Relying on asset owners, developers or IT personnel to identify and report in interviews or survey responses every instance of cryptographic usage is not just impractical; it simply does not work... IntroductionThe Flaws of Manual Cryptographic InventoriesThe Hidden Challenges of Cryptographic InventoryThe Layers Beneath ApplicationsThe Limitations of Human AwarenessThe Inadequacy of Interviews and SpreadsheetsThe Illusion of SecurityImplications for Quantum ReadinessThe Need for Automated Discovery ToolsSelecting the Right Automated Discovery Tools for Comprehensive Cryptographic Inventory1. Static Code Analysis2. Dynamic Analysis (Runtime Monitoring)3. Network Traffic Analysis4. Configuration and System Scanning5. Dependency Analysis6. Binary Analysis7. Cloud Environment Scanning8. Hardware and Firmware Analysis9. Certificate and Key Management Discovery10. Log AnalysisThe Importance of Using Multiple ToolsBuilding a Comprehensive Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM)Forgoing Cryptographic Inventory—An Alternative ApproachThe Logic Behind Skipping the InventoryChallenges of the No-Inventory ApproachThe Hybrid Approach: Immediate Action with Concurrent Inventory DevelopmentConclusionIntroduction The impending arrival of quantum computing presents a double-edged sword: while it promises unprecedented computational power, it also threatens to render current cryptographic systems obsolete. Organizations worldwide are scrambling to prepare for this quantum leap. One of the first steps advised for quantum readiness initiatives is for organizations to perform a comprehensive cryptographic inventory. In the absence of more specific requirements or established industry best practices, many started relying on manual, interview-based, inventories recorded in spreadsheets as their go-to approach. It's a box-ticking exercise that gives the appearance of action without true efficacy. In IT and OT environments, cryptography is embedded into every device, application, and service—often embedded deeply in ways that aren't immediately apparent. Relying on asset owners, developers or IT personnel to identify and report in interviews or survey responses every instance of cryptographic usage is not just impractical; it simply does not work. Even these, ostensibly best-positioned stakeholders, would not be aware of all the cryptographic uses and dependencies within systems under their control, leading to incomplete, unreliable, and ultimately useless inventories. This article explores why the oft-used, manual cryptographic inventories are insufficient for quantum readiness. I'll argue that... --- ### Record-Breaking Quantum Transmission Via Micius > A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication via Micius satellite​... - Published: 2022-04-29 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/micius-quantum-communications/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication, successfully teleporting quantum states between two ground stations 1,200 kilometers apart via Micius satellite​. The experiment, led by Pan Jianwei of the University of Science and Technology of China, marks the longest-distance quantum teleportation ever demonstrated, shattering previous records that were limited to tens or hundreds of kilometers. The researchers report that six independent quantum states were transmitted with high fidelity, surpassing the best possible performance of any classical communication method​. Experiment Explained: Teleporting Qubits Across ContinentsWhy It Matters: Advancing Quantum Communication and CryptographyChina’s Quantum Quest: Micius and the Road to a Quantum NetworkA New Quantum Space Race? Global Implications and LeadershipBeijing, China (April 2022) — A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication, successfully teleporting quantum states between two ground stations 1,200 kilometers apart via Micius satellite​. The experiment, led by Pan Jianwei of the University of Science and Technology of China, marks the longest-distance quantum teleportation ever demonstrated, shattering previous records that were limited to tens or hundreds of kilometers. The researchers report that six independent quantum states were transmitted with high fidelity, surpassing the best possible performance of any classical communication method​. This breakthrough, published in Physical Review Letters, is being hailed as a “giant step” toward a future global quantum network​, paving the way for ultra-secure, intercontinental quantum communication. Experiment Explained: Teleporting Qubits Across Continents At the heart of the experiment is the phenomenon of quantum teleportation, which transfers the state of a quantum particle from one place to another without moving the particle itself. To achieve this, two distant locations (traditionally nicknamed “Alice” and “Bob”) must share a pair of entangled photons – particles linked in such a way that measuring one instantly affects the state of the other​​. In this Chinese-led demonstration, the entangled photon pairs were distributed by Micius, a low-Earth-orbit satellite dedicated to quantum science. One photon from each pair was sent down to Alice’s ground station in Lijiang, in southwest China’s Yunnan province, while its twin was delivered to Bob’s station in Delingha, Qinghai province – a separation of 1,200 km on the ground​. Equipped with one half of an entangled pair, Alice then performed a joint Bell-state measurement on her entangled photon and a third photon carrying the... --- ### National Initiatives in Quantum Technologies (as of April 2022) > Countries are actively enhancing their capabilities through quantum-related strategic initiatives and regulatory frameworks - Published: 2022-04-28 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/global-initiatives-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing As quantum technologies garner global attention, its economic and national security implications are positioning these set of technologies alongside AI and 5G as pivotal emerging technologies for the future. Governments worldwide are recognizing the strategic importance of quantum technologies, which broadly includes quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing. Quantum TechnologiesUnited StatesNational Quantum Initiative ActNational Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing While Mitigating Risks to Vulnerable Cryptographic SystemsEuropean UnionQuantum ManifestoQuantum Technologies FlagshipChina13th Five Year Special Plan for Science and Technology Military-Civil Fusion Development14th Five Year PlanThe NetherlandsGermanyUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaSingaporeSouth KoreaRussiaAs quantum technologies garner global attention, its economic and national security implications are positioning these set of technologies alongside AI and 5G as pivotal emerging technologies for the future. Governments worldwide are recognizing the strategic importance of quantum technologies, which broadly includes quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing. To capitalize on quantum technologies, nations are launching strategic initiatives and creating regulatory frameworks to accelerate their development and adoption. Even though the field has been in development for decades in research labs, sensing that practical uses are nearing, the governments are all now in various ways trying to create the scientific-economic system that will help the industry transition from research labs to commercialization. Quantum Technologies As this blog is primarily focused on quantum computing, particularly its impact on cybersecurity, it's useful to explain the wider field of quantum technologies. Quantum technologies encompass a group of emerging technologies that exploit the principles of quantum mechanics to achieve breakthroughs across various domains. Quantum Sensing: Quantum sensing technologies harness the sensitivity of quantum systems to detect and measure minute changes in various physical properties. This capability holds the potential to revolutionize fields such as medical imaging, by improving the accuracy of diagnostic tools, and geophysics, by enhancing the precision of underground surveying techniques. Applications in navigation and radar systems could benefit from the heightened sensitivity of quantum sensors, offering a level of precision unattainable with current technology. Quantum Communication: This aspect of quantum technology focuses on securing communication using the principles of quantum mechanics. Unlike traditional methods that transmit encrypted data... --- ### Glossary of Quantum Computing Terms > Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals - Published: 2022-04-05 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/glossary-quantum-cyber/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals. Fundamentals of Quantum ComputingQubitSuperpositionEntanglementQuantum MeasurementBloch SphereQuantum Mechanics and Mathematical FoundationsHilbert SpaceBra–Ket Notation (Dirac Notation)Eigenstate and EigenvalueHamiltonianUnitary OperationAbelian vs. Non-AbelianBell inequalitiesBorn ruleWavefunction collapsePath integral formulationQuantum contextualityTensor networksUnitary matricesClifford groupQuantum channels and CPTP mapsKraus operatorsPauli groupStabilizer formalismPOVMs (Positive Operator-Valued Measures)Quantum Fisher informationQuantum Computing Architecture and HardwareQuantum GatesQuantum CircuitsPhysical Qubit ImplementationsMajorana FermionsQuantum AnnealingJosephson junctionsSuperconducting resonatorsCoherence timeQubit connectivityQuantum transducersCryogenic systemsIon traps and laser coolingTransmon qubitsQuantum interconnectsQuantum memory storageQuantum Error Correction and NoiseDecoherenceFidelityQuantum Error Correction (QEC)Fault ToleranceNoisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ)Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC)Quantum Cryptography and Security ConceptsCRQC (Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computer)Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)No-Cloning TheoremQuantum Advantage (and “Quantum Supremacy”)Shor’s AlgorithmGrover’s AlgorithmPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Q-DayY2Q (Years to Quantum / Years to Q-Day)Quantum oblivious transfer (QOT)Quantum bit commitmentQuantum digital signaturesQuantum zero-knowledge proofsQuantum money and unclonable tokensDevice-independent QKDQuantum-resistant authenticationRandomness amplificationQuantum-secure timestampingEmerging and Experimental TopicsQuantum advantage experimentsQuantum gravity and holographyAdiabatic quantum computing vs. gate-basedMeasurement-based quantum computingContinuous-variable quantum computingTopological quantum field theoriesAnyon braiding for fault toleranceTime crystals and quantum time orderBoson sampling and quantum photonics advancesQuantum repeatersSatellite-based quantum communicationEntanglement distillationQuantum teleportation protocolsHybrid quantum-classical networksFundamentals of Quantum Computing Qubit A qubit (short for quantum bit) is the basic unit of information in quantum computing, analogous to a bit in classical computing​. Like a bit, a qubit has two basis states often labeled |0⟩ and |1⟩, but unlike a classical bit, a qubit can exist in a superposition of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously. This means it can encode 0, 1, or a combination of 0 and 1 at the same time until it is measured. This property allows qubits to carry much richer information than classical bits. In practice, qubits can be implemented by physical systems such as electrons or photons – for example, using an electron’s spin or a photon’s polarization to represent the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states​. Multiple qubits can also become entangled (see Entanglement), enabling powerful correlations that... --- ### IBM Eagle: The First 100+ Qubit Quantum Processor > IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits​. - Published: 2021-11-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-eagle/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits​. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit in late 2021, Eagle marks a major milestone in quantum computing, nearly doubling the qubit count of IBM’s previous 65-qubit “Hummingbird” processor and overtaking the scale of rival devices like Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore​​. IBM’s researchers herald Eagle as ushering in a “new era” where quantum computers can explore computational problems beyond the reach of classical machines​​. By breaking the 100-qubit barrier, Eagle moves the industry one step closer to demonstrating quantum advantage – the point at which quantum computers outperform classical supercomputers on useful tasks – a goal IBM believes it can achieve within the next couple of years​. Pushing Quantum Computation Beyond Classical LimitsEagle vs. Sycamore and Zuchongzhi: A Leap in ScaleEngineering Breakthroughs Under the HoodWhy Eagle Matters for the Future of Quantum ComputingYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2021) - IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits​. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit in late 2021, Eagle marks a major milestone in quantum computing, nearly doubling the qubit count of IBM’s previous 65-qubit “Hummingbird” processor and overtaking the scale of rival devices like Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore​​. IBM’s researchers herald Eagle as ushering in a “new era” where quantum computers can explore computational problems beyond the reach of classical machines​​. By breaking the 100-qubit barrier, Eagle moves the industry one step closer to demonstrating quantum advantage – the point at which quantum computers outperform classical supercomputers on useful tasks – a goal IBM believes it can achieve within the next couple of years​. Pushing Quantum Computation Beyond Classical Limits Eagle’s 127 qubits place it in a regime that is extraordinarily hard to simulate with any classical computer. In a classical sense, each additional qubit doubles the size of the quantum state space, so a 127-qubit system corresponds to $$2^{127}$$ complex amplitudes – roughly $$1. 7\times10^{38}$$ values​. Storing and processing that many parameters is well beyond the capacity of the world’s largest supercomputers, which makes Eagle effectively impossible to brute-force simulate using conventional methods​. This is why IBM describes Eagle as its first “utility-scale” quantum processor, meaning it opens a window to explore calculations that were previously infeasible to model exactly on classical hardware​. “As quantum processors scale up, each additional qubit doubles the amount of memory space required to reliably simulate quantum circuits ,” IBM noted in its announcement, underscoring the significance of reaching triple-digit... --- ### Ready for Quantum: Practical Steps for Cybersecurity Teams > Practical preparation for Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) and Q-Day—when quantum computing will break cryptography - Published: 2021-11-01 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/practical-steps-quantum/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: featured, popular The journey towards quantum resistance is not merely about staying ahead of a theoretical threat but about evolving our cybersecurity practices in line with technological advancements. Starting preparations now ensures that organizations are not caught off guard when the landscape shifts. It’s about being informed, vigilant, and proactive—qualities essential to navigating any future technological shifts. 1. Introduction2. Practical Reasons for Preparing Now2. 1. The Inevitability of Technological Progress2. 2. The Complexity of Transition2. 3. The Longevity of Data2. 4. The Longevity of Digital Infrastructure2. 5. Regulatory and Compliance Requirements2. 6. Maintaining Public Trust2. 7. Enhancing Overall Cybersecurity Maturity2. 8. Insurance2. 9. Competitive Advantage2. 10. Cybersecurity Talent Attraction2. 11. Opportunity for Innovation3. Challenges with Post Quantum Cryptography (PQC)3. 1. Algorithm Maturity and Standardization3. 2. Performance Challenges3. 3. Implementation Complexity3. 4. Compliance and Regulatory Challenges3. 5. Cost3. What You Shouldn't Do3. 1. Avoid Panic Buying of Solutions3. 2. Avoid Rushing to Lock Down Systems4. What You Should Do4. 1. Secure Support from Senior Leadership4. 1. 1. Practical Steps for Engaging Senior Leadership4. 2. Establish a Cross-Functional Team for Quantum Readiness4. 2. 1. Practical Steps to Establish the Team4. 3. Launch an Awareness Campaign on Quantum Computing4. 3. 1. Practical Steps to Launch an Awareness Campaign on Quantum Computing4. 4. Engage External Parties for Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration4. 4. 1. Engage with NIST and Other Standard Development Organizations4. 4. 2. Collaborate with National Cybersecurity Agencies4. 4. 3. Engage with Academia4. 4. 4. Collaborate with Industry Consortia and Peer Organizations4. 5. Preparing Your Third Parties for the Arrival of CRQC4. 5. 1. Practical Steps for Preparing Your Third Parties for the Arrival of CRQC4. 9. 1. Practical Steps for Performing Sensitive Data Discovery and Classifications4. 10. Critical Systems and Assets Discovery and Classification4. 10. 1. Practical Steps for Performing Systems and Assets Discovery and Classification4. 11. Keep Inventories Up to Date4. 11. 1. Practical Steps to Maintain Up-to-Date Inventories4. 12. Perform Risk Assessment and Prioritize for Remediation4. 12. 1. Practical Steps to Performing Risk Assessment and Prioritization for Remediation4. 13. Develop Your Cryptographic Strategy4. 13. 1. Understanding Risk Mitigation Options4. 13. 1. 1. Strengthening Cybersecurity Controls4. 13. 1. 2.... --- ### Zuchongzhi 2.0: China’s Superconducting Quantum Leap > A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype - Published: 2021-06-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-2-0/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype that pushes the frontiers of computational power. Announced by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information, this new quantum machine builds on its predecessor (Zuchongzhi 1.0) with more qubits and higher fidelity, achieving a milestone known as quantum computational advantage (or “quantum supremacy”) in a programmable device​. In a benchmark test, Zuchongzhi 2.0 solved a problem in just over an hour that researchers estimate would take the world’s fastest supercomputer at least eight years to crack​. From Zuchongzhi 1. 0 to 2. 0: Scaling Up a Quantum ProcessorDemonstrating Quantum Advantage on a 66-Qubit ChipHow It Stacks Up Against Google, Jiuzhang, and IBMTechnical Breakthroughs and Why They MatterBroader Impact and What’s NextHefei, China, (Jun 2021) — A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2. 0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype that pushes the frontiers of computational power. Announced by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information, this new quantum machine builds on its predecessor (Zuchongzhi 1. 0) with more qubits and higher fidelity, achieving a milestone known as quantum computational advantage (or “quantum supremacy”) in a programmable device​. In a benchmark test, Zuchongzhi 2. 0 solved a problem in just over an hour that researchers estimate would take the world’s fastest supercomputer at least eight years to crack​. This dramatic speedup – on the order of millions of times faster than classical computing for the task – firmly places Zuchongzhi 2. 0 at the forefront of the quantum computing race​. It also marks China as the first nation to reach quantum advantage on two technological platforms (photonic and superconducting)​, underlining the country’s rapid strides in this high-stakes field. From Zuchongzhi 1. 0 to 2. 0: Scaling Up a Quantum Processor Zuchongzhi 2. 0 is the second-generation superconducting quantum processor developed by a team led by Pan Jianwei at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. It is named after Zu Chongzhi, a 5th-century Chinese mathematician famed for calculating pi with record-breaking precision. The first version (Zuchongzhi 1. 0), introduced in early 2021, featured 62 qubits and demonstrated advanced quantum control (such as two-dimensional quantum walks) but stopped short of outperforming classical computers​​. Zuchongzhi 2. 0, by contrast, ups the ante to 66 functional qubits arranged... --- ### Next-Generation QKD Protocols: A Cybersecurity Perspective > Next-generation QKD protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities... - Published: 2021-05-31 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/next-generation-qkd/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Networks Traditional QKD implementations have demonstrated provably secure key exchange, but they come with practical limitations. To address these limitations, researchers have developed next-generation QKD protocols. These advanced protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities, and they enhance performance (key rate, distance) through novel techniques. The article includes a high-level overview of the most notable next-gen QKD protocols. Introduction to QKD and Its Importance for CybersecurityOverview of Next-Generation QKD ProtocolsDevice-Independent QKD (DI-QKD)Measurement-Device-Independent QKD (MDI-QKD)Continuous-Variable QKD (CV-QKD)Twin-Field QKD (TF-QKD)Other Emerging Protocols and TechniquesQuantum Repeaters for QKDHigh-Dimensional QKDQuantum Satellite QKD & Trusted RelaysAdvantages Over Traditional QKDReal-World Applications and Commercial ViabilityChallenges and LimitationsTechnical Challenges – Loss, Noise, and Hardware ConstraintsIntegration and Infrastructure IssuesStandardization and InteroperabilitySecurity Caveats – Not a Silver BulletPerformance and UsabilityFuture Outlook and Breakthroughs NeededAdvances in Quantum HardwareQuantum Repeaters and MemoryHigher-Dimensional and Higher-Rate ProtocolsNetwork Integration and ManagementGlobal Quantum Security EcosystemFusion with Classical SecurityCost Reduction and CommercializationQuantum Internet Applications Beyond QKDConclusion(Minor updates in Jan 2025 to include latest developments in the EU) Introduction to QKD and Its Importance for Cybersecurity Quantum Key Distribution (BB84 protocol) have demonstrated provably secure key exchange, but they come with practical limitations. One major issue is the distance and key rate constraint: optical fiber QKD links suffer exponential photon loss with distance, typically limiting direct links to a few tens of kilometers (up to ~100 km in real-world conditions). Laboratory experiments have pushed fiber QKD to around 400 km by using ultralow-loss fiber and cryogenically cooled detectors, but those setups are impractical for commercial use​. Another limitation is that extending QKD beyond line-of-sight often requires “trusted nodes” – intermediate relay stations where keys are decrypted and re-encrypted. While these nodes can extend QKD across a network or continent, each must be physically secure and trusted, or else a compromise at one node could expose the keys​. This trusted-relay architecture introduces security risks that QKD ideally seeks to avoid. In summary, basic QKD is powerful for future-proof security, but overcoming its distance limits and device vulnerabilities is critical for broad cybersecurity adoption. Overview of Next-Generation QKD Protocols To address the above limitations, researchers have developed next-generation QKD protocols. These advanced protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and... --- ### Zuchongzhi 1.0: China's New Superconducting Processor > In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting... - Published: 2021-05-30 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-1/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting quantum computer that set a new benchmark in the quantum computing race. Named after a 5th-century Chinese mathematician, Zuchongzhi 1.0 contains the largest number of superconducting qubits ever assembled in a single processor so far​. A Programmable 62-Qubit Quantum Computer Sets a New RecordQuantum Advantage: From Google’s Sycamore to ZuchongzhiTechnical Innovations Under the HoodBroader Implications and OutlookIn May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1. 0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting quantum computer that set a new benchmark in the quantum computing race. Named after a 5th-century Chinese mathematician, Zuchongzhi 1. 0 contains the largest number of superconducting qubits ever assembled in a single processor so far​. This breakthrough machine, announced by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics and published in Science in May 2021, achieved a milestone experiment: two-dimensional programmable quantum walks using all 62 qubits​. The achievement underscored China’s growing role in cutting-edge quantum computing and hinted at a new era of quantum advantage on a programmable platform. A Programmable 62-Qubit Quantum Computer Sets a New Record Zuchongzhi 1. 0 is a 62-qubit superconducting processor, built on an 8×8 two-dimensional grid of transmon qubits (with a few sites unoccupied)​. Each qubit is a tiny superconducting circuit that can hold a quantum bit of information, and neighboring qubits are linked by tunable couplers that allow controlled interactions. In their first demonstration, the research team used this device to perform high-fidelity single- and two-particle quantum walks – essentially letting one or two quantum “walkers” hop around the grid in a superposition of paths​. It’s akin to particles taking random walks on an 8×8 chessboard, exploring many routes at once thanks to quantum superposition​. By programming different patterns of couplings, the team implemented a kind of Mach-Zehnder interferometer on the chip, where the wandering particles split and recombine along different pathways. The resulting interference fringes, observed over many runs, verified that the qubits were entangled and coherently controlled across the 62-node lattice​. Achieving such two-dimensional programmable quantum... --- ### ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography" Report > The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation" - Published: 2021-05-15 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-state/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) has recently published a report titled "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation. " This study offers a detailed overview of the current progress in the standardization process of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), crucial for safeguarding digital communications against the emerging threat posed by quantum computing capabilities. The report categorizes and explores the five principal families of post-quantum algorithms: code-based, isogeny-based, hash-based, lattice-based, and multivariate-based. Each family presents a unique approach to securing cryptographic systems in a post-quantum world. Additionally, ENISA's report explores National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Round 3 finalists for encryption and signature schemes, highlighting the forefront of PQC innovation. With the NIST’s selection process expected to continue for several more years, the report also proposes immediate measures that system owners can adopt to protect data confidentiality against quantum-capable attackers. One recommended strategy is the implementation of hybrid systems, which integrate both pre-quantum and post-quantum cryptographic schemes. Another approach is the incorporation of pre-shared keys into all public-key established keys, enhancing the overall security of these cryptographic systems. ENISA's report is a critical resource for cybersecurity professionals, policymakers, and anyone involved in the transition to quantum-resistant technologies. The agency’s proactive recommendations provide a pathway for organizations to begin fortifying their systems against potential quantum threats today. The full report, "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation," is at ENISA's official site: ENISA - Post-Quantum Cryptography Report. --- ### Evaluating Tokenization in the Context of Quantum Readiness > One often overlooked yet highly promising approach to quantum readiness is tokenization which can reduce dependence on quantum-vulnerable... - Published: 2021-04-16 - Modified: 2024-06-08 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/tokenization-quantum-readiness/ - Categories: Post-Quantum As the quantum era approaches, organizations face the daunting task of protecting their sensitive data from the looming threat of quantum computers. These powerful machines have the potential to render traditional cryptographic methods obsolete, making it imperative to explore innovative strategies for quantum readiness. One often overlooked yet highly promising approach is tokenization. IntroductionWhat is Tokenization? The Benefits of Tokenization in the Context of Quantum ReadinessMinimizing Infrastructure OverhaulReducing Attack SurfacesCost-Effective TransitionFlexibility and ScalabilityHow Tokenization WorksPerformance and ScalabilityRegulatory ComplianceEvaluating System Suitability for Tokenization in Quantum ReadinessAssessing System Suitability for Tokenization --- ### Quantum Computing - Looming Threat to Telecom Security > Learn practical steps to protect every device in your telecommunications organization from looming quantum computing threats. - Published: 2021-04-13 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-telecom/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Since the early 2000s, the field of quantum computing has seen significant advancements, both in technological development and in commercialization efforts. The experimental demonstration of Shor's algorithm in 2001 proved to be one of the key catalyzing events, spurring increased interest and investment from both the public and private sectors. IntroductionUnderstanding the Quantum ThreatQuantum Computing BasicsQuantum AnnealingImpact on CryptographyTelecom-Specific Cryptographic Algorithms in 5GSNOW 3G and ZUC in 5G NetworksAES-Based Algorithms5G Authentication and Key Agreement (5G-AKA)Quantum Algorithms Threatening CryptographyShor’s AlgorithmGrover’s AlgorithmHash-Based Cryptography VulnerabilitiesRefinements and New DevelopmentsAssessing Organizational VulnerabilitiesEnterprise ITBeyond Enterprise ITConducting a Comprehensive InventoryPractical Steps to Prepare for Quantum ComputingDevelop a Transition PlanUpgrade to Quantum-Resistant CryptographyAddress Every Device and SystemEnhance Security PoliciesStay Informed and AdaptiveTelecommunications-Specific ChallengesConclusionIntroduction (Note: The following scenario is a fictional illustration intended to demonstrate potential risks posed by quantum computing to the telecommunications industry. Zenith Telecom is a hypothetical company created for this purpose. ) Imagine a global leader in telecommunications, Zenith Telecom, preparing to launch its next-generation 5G network. Engineers have invested months, or years, in ensuring the network is secure, reliable, and fast. They have implemented advanced encryption protocols like RSA-4096 and elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC), along with 5G-specific algorithms such as 128-NEA1, 128-NEA2, and 128-NEA3 for encryption, and 128-NIA1, 128-NIA2, and 128-NIA3 for integrity protection to safeguard data. On the eve of the launch, unusual activities surface. Encrypted data packets that should be indecipherable are intercepted and read in plain text. Unauthorized access appears in Secure Shell (SSH) sessions, and Virtual Private Network (VPN) tunnels are compromised without triggering any alarms. As the night unfolds, the situation worsens. Authentication tokens are forged, allowing intruders to mimic legitimate users. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) credentials using 5G Authentication and Key Agreement (5G-AKA) are extracted en masse, putting millions of customers’ data at risk. Control signals managing everything from network routing to emergency services become vulnerable to hijacking. The consequences are catastrophic and far-reaching. Stock prices plummet as investors lose confidence, and regulatory fines loom large. The company’s reputation is in ruins, but the impact extends far beyond financial loss. Critical services reliant on the telecommunications network begin to... --- ### Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) and Impact on Cyber > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its subset Quantum Annealing, are another models for quantum computation focused on optimization... - Published: 2021-04-03 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-cyber/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its variant Quantum Annealing, are another model for quantum computation. It's a specialized subset of quantum computing focused on solving optimization problems by finding the minimum (or maximum) of a given function over a set of possible solutions. For problems that can be presented as optimization problems, such as 3-SAT problem, quantum database search problem, and yes, the factoring problem we are worried about, quantum annealers have shown great potential in solving them in a way that classical computers struggle with. IntroductionFactorization and Classical ComputersUniversal Quantum ComputingAdiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) and Quantum AnnealingIntroduction When we discuss quantum computing, we most often refer to Universal Quantum Computing, also known as Gate-Based Quantum Computing. This is the familiar model of quantum computing which uses quantum gates to perform operations on qubits in a similar way classical computers manipulate classical bits. This flavor of quantum computing is known as “universal” because, in theory, it can perform any computation that a classical computer can, but potentially much faster for certain types of problems. That's not the only model of quantum computing, however. But let's start from the beginning. Factorization and Classical Computers The integer factorization problem reduces an integer N to its prime factors. Finding these prime factors is a computationally hard problem. In other words, there is no simple formula to find such prime factors. Algorithms for factorization all require many computational operations. This requirement is mathematically proven, the algorithms are deterministic, and because of the difficulty of this mathematical problem, this is used as the basic hardness assumption for many encryption methods in use today. The fastest known classical algorithm for integer factorization is the general number field sieve (GNFS) which scales exponentially in the number of operations required with respect to the size of the integer to be factored. It's easy to see how increasing the bits in the integer N, exponentially increases the computing requirement. For example, RSA-2048 with a 2048-bit size key would take billions of years of processing on a classical computer. The precise number would depending on the computer's processing power and various algorithm optimizations. In any case, somewhat beyond the patience of any adversary that might target you. On a related note, if you want to learn more about the development of (classical) factoring algorithms and the... --- ### China’s Jiuzhang Achieves Photonic Quantum Advantage > A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum chip - Published: 2020-12-08 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-jiuzhang-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum processor that achieved a major computational milestone. In experiments reported on December 3, 2020, Jiuzhang completed in 200 seconds a mathematical problem that researchers estimate would take a classical supercomputer on the order of 2.5 billion years to solve​. Hefei, China (Dec 2020) - A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum processor that achieved a major computational milestone. In experiments reported on December 3, 2020, Jiuzhang completed in 200 seconds a mathematical problem that researchers estimate would take a classical supercomputer on the order of 2. 5 billion years to solve​. This astonishing speedup – about 1014 times faster than the world’s fastest conventional supercomputers​ – signifies that Jiuzhang has attained “quantum computational advantage,” a level of performance where a quantum computer overwhelmingly outperforms any classical computer on a specific task​. It marks only the second time ever that quantum advantage (also known as quantum supremacy) has been claimed; the first was by Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore processor in 2019​. Jiuzhang’s achievement is particularly noteworthy as it’s the world’s first light-based quantum computer to reach this benchmark​, using photons (particles of light) instead of electronic circuits. Jiuzhang – named after an ancient Chinese mathematical text – was developed by Pan Jianwei, Lu Chaoyang, and colleagues at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC)​. The accomplishment has been hailed as a “state-of-the-art experiment” and a “major achievement” by experts around the globe​. Barry Sanders, director of the University of Calgary’s quantum science institute, called it “one of the most significant results in the field of quantum computing” since Google’s 2019 result​. The feat instantly cements China’s position among the top tier of nations competing in quantum technology​ and provides a fundamentally different approach to building powerful quantum machines. Anton Zeilinger, a renowned quantum physicist, remarked that after this experiment “there is a very good chance that quantum computers may be used very broadly someday,” noting the rapid progress by Pan’s group and others​. In a USTC... --- ### Early History of Quantum Computing > Brief history of quantum computing from quantum mechanics theory to practical implementations of quantum computers - Published: 2020-06-16 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/history-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: popular Since the early 2000s, the field of quantum computing has seen significant advancements, both in technological development and in commercialization efforts. The experimental demonstration of Shor's algorithm in 2001 proved to be one of the key catalyzing events, spurring increased interest and investment from both the public and private sectors. Early Theoretical Foundations and Algorithmic Breakthroughs1920 to 1985 - The Conceptual Beginnings1957 - The Many Worlds of Hugh Everett1968 - Conjugate Coding and Stephen Wiesner1970 - James Park and No-Cloning Theorem1980 - Paul Benioff and Quantum Mechanical Models of Computers1981 - Richard Feyman1985 - David Deutsch and the Universal Quantum Computer1994 to 1996 - Quantum Algorithms Emerge1994 - Peter Shor1996 - Lov GroverThe Evolution of Quantum Computing1995 and 1996 - Quantum Error Correction Emerges1995 to present - Physical Realization and Challenges1995 - First Quantum Logic Gate Using Trapped Ions1999 - First Demonstration of Superconducting Qubits2001 - First Experimental Implementation of Linear Optical Quantum Computing2001 - First Experimental Demonstration of Shor's AlgorithmRecent Developments and CommercializationEntering the Era of Quantum SupremacyAs a failed physicist - my first academic pursuits were in theoretical physics and applied geophysics, and as the son of a well-known theoretical physicist, quantum computing has always fascinated me. It brought together my initial scientific interests and my chosen career in computer science, cryptography and cybersecurity. Admittedly, I never fully understood quantum mechanics, but its intersection with computing and potential practical applications are intriguing. In case you are as interested in the field as I am, here's a brief history of quantum computing with a brief description of each important event and with lots of relevant links. The full history of the quantum computing field would have to include thousands of scientists and hundreds of events. A more comprehensive timeline is available on Wikipedia "Timeline of quantum computing and communication. " In this article I selected only the events I believe were the most influential, or I personally found them most fascinating. Every time I mention a year in the article, I refer to the first instance a particular theory or an algorithm were proposed or an implementation demonstrated, but,... --- ### Entanglement-Based QKD Protocols: E91 and BBM92 > Entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications... - Published: 2020-04-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/entanglement-based-qkd/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Networks While prepare-and-measure QKD currently leads the market due to simplicity and higher key rates, entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications. Ongoing improvements in photonic technology are steadily closing the gap in performance. The additional security guarantees (e.g., tolerance of untrusted devices) and network capabilities (multi-user, untrusted relay) provided by entanglement make it a very attractive approach for future large-scale quantum-secure networks. Introduction to Entanglement-Based QKDMathematical FoundationsQuantum Entanglement and its Role in QKDBell Inequalities and the CHSH TestQuantum Correlations – Mathematical FormulationDetailed Breakdown of Entanglement-Based QKD ProtocolsE91 Protocol (Ekert 1991)BBM92 Protocol (Bennett, Brassard, Mermin 1992)Security ComparisonEavesdropping ResistanceSecurity Model Differences (E91 vs BBM92 vs BB84)Trusted Devices AssumptionSource IndependenceBell Test vs QBERVulnerabilitiesSide-Channel CountermeasuresMDI-QKD vs DI-QKDMDI-QKDDI-QKDSummaryPractical ImplementationsExperimental RealizationsFiber vs. Free-Space/SatelliteTechnological ChallengesIndustry and Commercial InterestIntroduction to Entanglement-Based QKD Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a method for two distant parties (traditionally Alice and Bob) to generate a shared secret key by exchanging quantum signals over an insecure channel. Its security is guaranteed by fundamental quantum mechanics: any eavesdropper (Eve) attempting to intercept or measure the quantum states will disturb them in a detectable way​. In a typical QKD scheme like BB84 (Bennett-Brassard 1984), Alice prepares single photons in one of several possible polarization states (encoding 0/1 bits) and sends them to Bob, who measures each in a randomly chosen basis. After many photon transmissions, Alice and Bob publicly compare which bases they used and keep only those events where their bases matched, yielding correlated binary outcomes. Any attempt by Eve to glean information (by measuring photons in transit) introduces errors, alerting Alice and Bob to her presence​. This prepare-and-measure approach (exemplified by BB84 and its variant B92) relies on encoding key bits into prepared quantum states and detecting disturbances via error rates. Entanglement-based QKD offers an alternative paradigm that exploits quantum entanglement as a resource for secure key generation​​. Instead of one party sending prepared states to the other, a source produces entangled photon pairs and distributes them such that Alice and Bob each receive one particle of each pair. Because the entangled photons have correlated (indeed quantum-correlated) properties, measurements performed by Alice and Bob are strongly linked. Notably, the outcomes are intrinsically random for each party,... --- ### Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and the BB84 Protocol > Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics... - Published: 2020-04-13 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qkd-bb84/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Networks Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics to distribute cryptographic keys with guaranteed security.Unlike classical encryption, whose security often relies on the computational difficulty of certain mathematical problems, QKD's security is based on the laws of physics, which are, as far as we know, unbreakable. Cryptography BackgroundSecret or Symmetric Key CryptographyAsymmetric or Public-Key CryptographyQuantum Theoretical UnderpinningHeisenberg Uncertainty PrincipleNo-Cloning TheoremImplications of No-Cloning Theorem for Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)The Concept of QKDBB84: The First Quantum Key Distribution ProtocolBreakdown of the BB84 ProtocolSecurity and Practical ImplementationConclusionI often write about the risks quantum computing poses to cryptography and cybersecurity. However, in some ways, quantum mechanics also provides an amazing solution for some of these challenges—a solution that, as of now, we don't even have the slightest idea if and how it could be broken. Let me illustrate this with Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), exemplified by the BB84 protocol that initiated it. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics to distribute cryptographic keys with guaranteed security. Unlike classical encryption, whose security often relies on the computational difficulty of certain mathematical problems (see "What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction" for an introduction), QKD's security is based on the laws of physics, which are, as far as we know, unbreakable. Cryptography Background Knowing my audience, I'll keep this brief. I want to emphasize one aspect of cryptography, though—our professional lives would have been much simpler if we could have solely relied on symmetric cryptography. Secret or Symmetric Key Cryptography In symmetric key cryptography, two parties, typically referred to as Alice and Bob, encrypt and decrypt their messages using the same shared key. According to the Vernam theorem, a symmetric encryption technique can ensure absolute secrecy if the a random, one-time key is used and if the key is as long as the message itself. The Vernam cipher, developed by Gilbert Vernam in 1917, embodies this principle. He documented it in his patent application. The Vernam theorem underpins the absolute security of this encryption method, stating that if the key is truly... --- ### The Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate in Quantum Computing > The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations... - Published: 2020-03-01 - Modified: 2025-03-01 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cnot-gate-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations. By learning how the CNOT gate works and why it matters, cybersecurity experts can better appreciate how quantum computers process information, how they might break cryptography, and how they enable new secure protocols. This article provides an accessible yet rigorous overview of the CNOT gate, tailored for tech-savvy professionals in security. IntroductionFoundational Quantum ConceptsWhat is the CNOT Gate? Why is the CNOT Gate Fundamental? How Other Logical Gates Can Be Constructed with CNOTRole in Quantum Cryptography & Error CorrectionCNOT in Quantum Cryptography (QKD and GHZ States)CNOT in Quantum Error CorrectionConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is poised to revolutionize the field of cybersecurity – both by breaking some of today’s encryption and by offering new, physics-based security protocols. Unlike classical computers, which use bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum computers use quantum bits (qubits) that leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to perform computations beyond classical capabilities. This power comes with a double-edged sword for security: on one hand, a sufficiently large quantum computer could crack widely used cryptographic algorithms (for example, Shor’s algorithm can factor large numbers, threatening RSA encryption), and on the other hand, quantum mechanics enables new secure communication methods like quantum key distribution (QKD). Governments and industry are taking note – the U. S. Department of Homeland Security has even identified the transition to post-quantum encryption as a priority to ensure cyber resilience. With quantum computing advancing rapidly, it’s crucial for cybersecurity professionals to grasp its fundamentals. In particular, understanding the Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate – one of the most important two-qubit logic gates – is essential. The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations. By learning how the CNOT gate works and why it matters, cybersecurity experts can better appreciate how quantum computers process information, how they might break cryptography, and how they enable new secure protocols. This article provides an accessible yet rigorous overview of the CNOT gate, tailored for tech-savvy professionals in security. Foundational Quantum Concepts Before diving into the CNOT gate, let’s briefly review a few quantum computing basics: qubits, superposition,... --- ### Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) Benchmark > At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. - Published: 2019-12-30 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/rcs-benchmark/ - Categories: Quantum Computing At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. Compare the results to what an ideal quantum computer should produce. If the quantum computer’s output closely matches the theoretical expectations, it demonstrates that the system is performing quantum operations correctly. What is Random Circuit Sampling (RCS)? Why is RCS an Important Benchmark for Quantum Computing? Hard for Classical Computers to SimulateNo Structure to ExploitA Proxy for Quantum Error RatesThe Mathematics Behind RCSComputing the Ideal Output DistributionCross-Entropy BenchmarkingThe Rise of RCS: From Theory to Google’s Quantum SupremacyChallenges and Criticism of RCSConclusionQuantum computing is advancing rapidly, with companies like Google, IBM, and Microsoft racing to prove their hardware can perform computations beyond the reach of classical supercomputers. But how do we measure quantum progress? How can we objectively say one quantum processor is “better” than another? One of the most significant milestones in quantum computing history was Google’s 2019 announcement of “quantum supremacy”—a term used to describe a quantum device performing a task that no classical computer could realistically complete in a reasonable amount of time. This claim was based on a technique known as Random Circuit Sampling (RCS). Since then, RCS has become a widely used benchmark for quantum processors, allowing researchers to compare different machines and test whether they truly push the boundaries of computational feasibility. What is Random Circuit Sampling (RCS)? At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. The goal is simple: Take a quantum computer. Run a randomly generated quantum circuit. Measure the results. Compare them to what an ideal quantum computer should produce. If the quantum computer’s output closely matches the theoretical expectations, it demonstrates that the system is performing quantum operations correctly. But why random circuits? Why not use structured computations like Shor’s algorithm for factoring numbers or Grover’s search algorithm? The answer lies in hardness. Many quantum algorithms can be approximated or simulated efficiently by classical computers—especially when they exploit symmetries or special mathematical structures. However,... --- ### Breaking RSA-2048 With 20M Noisy Qubit > Paper authors claim that their construction's spacetime volume for factoring RSA-2048 integers is a hundredfold less than earlier estimates - Published: 2019-12-07 - Modified: 2024-05-25 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/breaking-rsa-2048-20m/ - Categories: Industry News An interesting paper was published on arXiv, the preprint server. Titled "How to factor 2048 bit RSA integers in 8 hours using 20 million noisy qubits," the paper by Craig Gidney and Martin Ekerå combines previous techniques from Shor (1994), Griffiths-Niu (1996), Zalka (2006), Fowler (2012), Ekerå-Håstad (2017), Ekerå (2017, 2018), Gidney-Fowler (2019), and Gidney (2019) to significantly reduce the cost of factoring integers and computing discrete logarithms in finite fields on a quantum computer. By integrating these approaches, the authors claim that their construction's spacetime volume for factoring RSA-2048 integers is a hundredfold less than comparable estimates from earlier works. I find this paper notable because only six years ago, Fowler et al. published their optimization of Shor's algorithm, estimating the need for 1 billion noisy qubits to factor RSA-2048. The rapid advancement in quantum algorithm development gives us an intriguing data point to predict when quantum computers will be capable of breaking our current cryptography. See the full paper here: https://arxiv. org/abs/1905. 09749 --- ### The Quantum Computing Threat > Along with exciting new capabilities that will serve humanity in general, quantum computing also ushers in an era of expanded cyber risks. - Published: 2019-11-04 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-security/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: popular The secret sauce of quantum computing, which even Einstein called "spooky," is the ability to generate and manipulate quantum bits of data or qubits. Certain computational tasks can be executed exponentially faster on a quantum processor using qubits, than on a classical computer with 1s and 0s. A qubit can attain a third state of superimposition of 1s and 0s simultaneously, encode data into quantum mechanical properties by "entangling" pairs of qubits, manipulate that data and perform huge complex calculations very quickly. IntroductionThe Breadth of the Quantum Threat to Cybersecurity and 5G SecurityCurrent Advances in Quantum ComputingWhat is Required for Quantum Resilience? What Governments are Doing and/or Should be Doing to Address the Quantum ThreatThe Challenge of ChinaQuantum Security ConclusionIntroduction Recently, in the science journal Nature, Google claimed ‘quantum supremacy’ saying that its quantum computer is the first to perform a calculation that would be practically impossible for a classical machine. This quantum computing breakthrough brings us closer to the arrival of functional quantum systems which will have a profound effect on today's security infrastructure. How will quantum computing affect the security of 5G technologies currently being developed and deployed? Last spring we suggested that the emergence of quantum internet connectivity and computation, expected sometime in the next decade, poses numerous new cryptography and cybersecurity challenges for 5G security. MIT offers an explainer on the nascent status of powerful quantum computers, how they work, and where they might provide practical value first. While quantum computers are not expected to replace classical supercomputers for most tasks and problems, they will leverage the "almost-mystical" phenomena of quantum mechanics to produce amazing advances in fields such as materials science and pharmaceuticals. The secret sauce of quantum computing, which even Einstein called "spooky," is the ability to generate and manipulate quantum bits of data or qubits. Certain computational tasks can be executed exponentially faster on a quantum processor using qubits, than on a classical computer with 1s and 0s. A qubit can attain a third state of superimposition of 1s and 0s simultaneously, encode data into quantum mechanical properties by "entangling" pairs of qubits, manipulate that data and perform huge complex calculations very quickly. The fundamental challenge is to build a sufficiently high capacity processor capable of running quantum algorithms in an exponentially larger computational space.... --- ### Google’s Sycamore Achieves Quantum Supremacy > Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy” - Published: 2019-10-26 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-sycamore/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy.” In a paper published in Nature, the Google AI Quantum team reported that Sycamore performed a specific computation in approximately 200 seconds – a task they estimated would take the world’s fastest classical supercomputer at least 10,000 years to complete​. What Was Achieved, and How? How Sycamore Compares to Earlier Quantum Computing MilestonesIBM’s Superconducting QubitsD-Wave’s Quantum AnnealersTrapped-Ion Quantum ComputersOther Notable MilestonesWhy Does It Matter? Implications for Industry and ComputingCybersecurity Concerns in the Quantum EraMountain View, CA, USA (Oct 2019) – Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy. ” In a paper published in Nature, the Google AI Quantum team reported that Sycamore performed a specific computation in approximately 200 seconds – a task they estimated would take the world’s fastest classical supercomputer at least 10,000 years to complete​. This achievement marks the first time a quantum computer has outpaced classical computers for a real computational problem, heralding a new era in computing research. Researchers at NASA and Oak Ridge National Laboratory, who collaborated on benchmarking the feat, lauded the result as a “transformative achievement” demonstrating computation in seconds that would take “the largest and most advanced supercomputers” millennia​. Quantum Supremacy – a term coined by Caltech professor John Preskill in 2012 – refers to the moment a programmable quantum computer performs a calculation that no conventional computer can feasibly solve​. Google’s experiment validated this concept by having Sycamore tackle a carefully chosen task: sampling the output of a random quantum circuit. In essence, the processor had to generate a set of one million bitstrings (random 53-bit numbers) with probabilities dictated by quantum interference, and do so faster than any known classical algorithm could simulate​. The difficulty of this task grows exponentially with the number of qubits; even for the most powerful classical supercomputer (IBM’s 2019 Summit), direct simulation of Sycamore’s 53-qubit circuit is impractical. Google’s team estimated such a simulation might require $$2^{53}$$ computational states – about 10 quadrillion – making it “exponentially costly” in time and memory​​. By performing... --- ### Challenges of Upgrading to Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) > The shift to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention... - Published: 2019-10-14 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-challenges/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The shift to post-quantum cryptography is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention. The quantum threat affects all forms of computing—whether it’s enterprise IT, IoT devices, or personal electronics. Transitioning to quantum-resistant algorithms is a complex, resource-intensive task that demands coordination across the supply chain, extensive security audits, and careful management of performance and cost issues. IntroductionThe Quantum Threat: A Universal VulnerabilityBeyond Enterprise IT: The Vulnerability of Non-IT SystemsPerformance and Efficiency Concerns: Larger Key Sizes and More Computing PowerSecurity Auditing, Algorithm Maturity, and Side-Channel AttacksSupply Chain and Vendor CoordinationCost and Resource Allocation: A Complex and Expensive TransitionOrganizational Readiness and Misconceptions: Why Companies Delay ActionConclusion: The Need for Immediate ActionIntroduction Quantum computing, once a theoretical field, is rapidly becoming a tangible reality. Its potential to revolutionize many scientific and technical fields is accompanied by a dark side: the ability to break many of the cryptographic protocols we rely on today. Asymmetric cryptography algorithms like RSA and ECC, which safeguard much of our online data and communications, will be rendered vulnerable to quantum attacks, primarily due to algorithms like Shor’s Algorithm. This means that to secure the future, we must transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC)—a massive task that poses significant challenges for organizations worldwide. In my opinion, a task that is more massive then Y2K. For those who remember it. The Quantum Threat: A Universal Vulnerability One of the most significant implications of quantum computing is its ability to compromise nearly every device that relies on encryption. Devices today use both asymmetric and symmetric cryptography for everything from secure communications to validating software integrity. While asymmetric algorithms like RSA and ECC will be completely broken by quantum computers, even symmetric cryptography will be weakened. For example, symmetric algorithms like AES, although not entirely broken, will require substantially larger key sizes to remain secure. Moreover, quantum computers can weaken cryptographic hash functions used to verify data integrity, thus making software updates, digital signatures, and device authentications vulnerable. This means the quantum threat doesn’t just apply to high-security enterprise systems—it touches every connected device. From smartphones and laptops to industrial control systems and IoT devices, quantum computing poses a risk... --- ### What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction > I'll try and break down the concepts of quantum computing, explore why it's better than classical computing for certain tasks, and discuss... - Published: 2019-04-04 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-introduction/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing Quantum computing holds the potential to revolutionize fields where classical computers struggle, particularly in areas involving complex quantum systems, large-scale optimization, and cryptography. The power of quantum computing lies in its ability to leverage the principles of quantum mechanics—superposition and entanglement—to perform certain types of calculations much more efficiently than classical computers. IntroductionClassical vs. Quantum ComputingSuperpositionExponential Growth of StatesEntanglementGrover's Search AlgorithmTypes of Problems Suitable for Quantum ComputingProblems Not Suitable for Quantum ComputingProblem for CybersecurityPervasiveness of Quantum-Vulnerable Cryptography in Current SystemsPublic Key Infrastructure (PKI)Secure Software DistributionSingle Sign-On (SSO)Key Exchange over a Public ChannelSecure Email (S/MIME)Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)Secure Web Browsing (SSL/TLS)Blockchain TechnologiesPayment SystemsSmart GridsIndustrial Control Systems (ICS)Wireless CommunicationOthersSymmetric CryptographyHashing AlgorithmsConclusionIntroduction Recently I suggested that the emergence of quantum internet connectivity and computation, expected sometime in the next decade, poses numerous new cryptography and cybersecurity challenges for 5G security. Let me explain. MIT offers an explainer on the nascent status of powerful quantum computers, how they work, and where they might provide practical value first. While quantum computers are not expected to replace classical supercomputers for most tasks and problems, they will leverage the “almost-mystical” phenomena of quantum mechanics to produce amazing advances in certain fields such as cryptography, drug discovery, materials sciences, and artificial intelligence. However, understanding quantum computing can be challenging due to its reliance on principles of quantum mechanics. The secret sauce of quantum computing, which even Einstein called “spooky,” is the ability to generate and manipulate quantum bits of data or qubits. Certain computational tasks can be executed exponentially faster on a quantum processor using qubits, than on a classical computer with 1s and 0s. A qubit can attain a third state of supeposition of 1s and 0s simultaneously, encode data into quantum mechanical properties by “entangling” pairs of qubits, manipulate that data and perform huge complex calculations very quickly. The fundamental challenge is to build a sufficiently high capacity processor capable of running quantum algorithms in an exponentially larger computational space. Classical vs. Quantum Computing To understand the differences between classical and quantum computing, let's first understand how classical computers work. Classical computers use bits, which are the basic... --- ### Introduction to Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG) > Unlike classical methods, QRNG leverages the inherent unpredictability of quantum mechanics. At the quantum level, particles such as photons... - Published: 2019-01-17 - Modified: 2025-02-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-random-number-generation-qrng/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Cryptographic systems rely on the unpredictability and randomness of numbers to secure data. In cryptography, the strength of encryption keys depends on their unpredictability. Unpredictable and truly random numbers—those that remain secure even against extensive computational resources and are completely unknown to adversaries—are among the most essential elements in cryptography and cybersecurity. IntroductionThe Problem with PredictabilityCloudflare Lava LampsQuantum Random Number Generation (QRNG)Why QRNGs Are a Superior Solution for Randomness GenerationFundamental Quantum RandomnessSimplicity and Reliability of Quantum ProcessesCertification and Validation of RandomnessEnhanced Security and TrustChallenges With QRNGQRNG in ProductionConclusionIntroduction Cryptographic systems rely on the unpredictability and randomness of numbers to secure data. In cryptography, the strength of encryption keys depends on their unpredictability. Unpredictable and truly random numbers—those that remain secure even against extensive computational resources and are completely unknown to adversaries—are among the most essential elements in cryptography and cybersecurity. In cryptography, random numbers are used in multiple ways: Encryption Keys: At the heart of cryptographic systems are encryption keys, which are used to encode and decode information. These keys must be random and unpredictable to ensure that unauthorized parties cannot guess them. If an encryption key were predictable, it would be vulnerable to attacks, allowing intruders to decipher the encrypted data. Random numbers ensure that each key is unique and cannot be easily replicated or anticipated. Initialization Vectors and Nonces: In many encryption schemes, random numbers are used as initialization vectors (IVs) and nonces. These elements add an additional layer of randomness to the encryption process, ensuring that even if the same plaintext is encrypted multiple times, the resulting ciphertexts will be different. This prevents attackers from identifying patterns and exploiting them to break the encryption. Random Padding: To secure data further, random padding is often added before encryption. This padding prevents attackers from making educated guesses about the structure or content of the plaintext based on the length or other characteristics of the ciphertext. Key Generation and Exchange: Random numbers are essential in the generation of cryptographic keys. During key exchange protocols, such as Diffie-Hellman, randomness ensures that the keys exchanged between parties are secure and not predictable by eavesdroppers.... --- ### U.S. National Quantum Initiative Act > On December 21, 2018, the United States solidified its commitment to quantum technology by enacting the National Quantum Initiative Act - Published: 2018-12-29 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/us-quantum-initiative-act/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On December 21, 2018, the United States solidified its commitment to quantum technology advancement by enacting the H. R. 6227 - National Quantum Initiative Act. Passed with near-unanimous support from both houses of Congress, this landmark legislation outlines a comprehensive 10-year plan aimed at maintaining and enhancing U. S. leadership in quantum technologies. Key Provisions of the National Quantum Initiative Act: Establishment of the National Quantum Coordination Office: Located within the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, this office is tasked with overseeing interagency coordination, providing strategic planning support, serving as a central point for stakeholder contact, promoting outreach, and facilitating the commercialization of federally funded research. Support for Quantum Research: The act significantly boosts funding and support across several federal agencies: The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) is supported to develop quantum measurement standards and technology. The Department of Energy (DOE) is endorsed to conduct basic research and establish national quantum research centers. The National Science Foundation (NSF) is encouraged to support fundamental quantum research and education through academic multidisciplinary centers. Promotion of Private Sector Involvement: The legislation calls on U. S. high-tech companies and quantum technology startups to contribute their expertise to national efforts, addressing research gaps and enhancing the workforce pipeline to secure a long-term competitive advantage for the U. S. Strategic Focus on Education and Workforce Development: The act emphasizes the importance of training a new generation of scientists and engineers in quantum technologies, aiming to power an economic and scientific revolution. Coordination and International Cooperation: Under the aegis of the National Science and Technology Council, the Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science is empowered to coordinate quantum research and education across federal agencies, recommend infrastructure needs, and evaluate opportunities for collaboration with strategic allies. --- ### Introducing Quantum AI > Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. - Published: 2018-12-14 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-artificial-intelligence-qai/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. This interdisciplinary field explores how quantum algorithms can enhance, accelerate, and expand the capabilities of conventional AI systems. Quantum computing's potential to process complex datasets exponentially faster than classical computers could revolutionize areas like machine learning, optimization, and pattern recognition. IntroductionExponential Growth in AI Computing RequirementsIntroduction to Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI)Why Quantum Computers Are Well-Suited for Manipulating Vectors and Matrices Required by AIRecent Key Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) Research PapersQuantum Machine Learning AlgorithmsApplications of Quantum AIChallenges and Future DirectionsConclusionIntroduction (This article was originally published in 2018. Updated in 2022 after the release of ChatGPT) While I like to explore and learn about quantum computing in my quantum-computing related blog PostQuantum. com, my main research and professional focus remains on AI, particularly on the security and safety aspects of AI. I typically share my AI-related writing on Defence. AI. Therefore, the potential integration of AI with quantum computing is of special personal interest to me, as it promises to blend my areas of interest in exciting new ways. It’s not uncommon to hear skepticism about Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI), often dismissed as just another buzzword amalgamation crafted primarily to captivate investors. However, the fusion of quantum computing and artificial intelligence makes sense and indeed holds tangible promise beyond just the hype. I'm aware of these doubts surrounding QAI and will try to demystify the practical value and potential breakthroughs achievable by integrating these technologies. Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an emerging new field where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. This conflation explores how quantum algorithms can enhance, accelerate, and expand the capabilities of conventional AI systems. Quantum computing, once commercially viable, will be able to offer to AI the level of computational power on a scale that classical computing systems simply cannot match. For a computing-power-hungry AI this means significantly enhanced processing power for tasks like optimization, simulation, and machine learning models, enabling them to handle more complex variables and train more quickly and effectively than ever before. This exponential growth in computational abilities could dramatically shorten the time required to... --- ### Why Do Quantum Computers Look So Weird? > The iconic look of superconducting quantum computers' "chandelier" causes lots of questions and discussions. For a simple introduction see... - Published: 2018-12-01 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computer-weird/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The intricate giant chandelier of copper tubes, wires, and shielding often leaves people puzzled and curious. This image of a quantum computer is quite striking and unlike any classical computer we've seen before. This unique appearance is not just for show; it's a direct result of the specific technological requirements needed to operate quantum computers, particularly those based on superconducting qubits. IntroductionWhy Cryogenics? Why Quantum Computer Chandeliers Hang from the CeilingKey Components of a Cryogenic SystemCryoperm ShieldCryogenic IsolatorsDilution Refrigerator and Mixing ChamberQuantum AmplifiersConclusion Introduction As someone somewhat involved in the world of quantum computing, I am frequently asked about the iconic and somewhat bizarre appearance of quantum computers. The intricate giant chandelier of copper tubes, wires, and shielding often leaves people puzzled and curious. This image of a quantum computer is quite striking and unlike any classical computer we've seen before. This unique appearance is not just for show; it's a direct result of the specific technological requirements needed to operate quantum computers, particularly those based on superconducting qubits. Why Cryogenics? Cryogenics, the science of producing and maintaining extremely low temperatures, is crucial for the operation of quantum computers. Quantum systems often operate in the millikelvin range, just thousandths of a degree above absolute zero (-273 °C or 0 Kelvin). Superconducting qubits need to be maintained at temperatures close to absolute zero (20-100 millikelvin) to minimize thermal noise and ensure quantum coherence. Thermal energy can cause decoherence, where qubits lose their quantum state. At higher temperatures, qubits interact more with their environment, leading to errors in computations. By cooling the system to near absolute zero, these interactions are minimized, allowing qubits to maintain coherence and perform the complex calculations quantum computers are designed for. While this temperature difference may seem minuscule, it has monumental implications for quantum technology. Even minute thermal vibrations at slightly higher temperatures, such as 4 Kelvin, can disrupt qubits, causing them to lose their quantum superposition states and revert to classical binary states through a process called decoherence. To preserve quantum coherence long enough to perform computations, qubit processor chips must operate at temperatures between 20-100 millikelvin, only millionths of a degree above absolute zero. At these... --- ### Quantum Computing Use Cases > While quantum computing is still in its early stages, with practical and widespread use yet to be realized, the potential it holds is transformative... - Published: 2018-11-30 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-use-cases/ - Categories: Quantum Computing In the early 1900s, when theoretical physicist Max Planck first introduced the idea of quantized energy levels, he probably didn’t foresee his work eventually leading to machines that could solve problems faster than a caffeine-fueled mathematician on a deadline. Legend has it that Planck embarked on his quantum journey after his professor, Munich University physics professor Philipp von Jolly, discouraged him from studying physics, arguing that "in this field, almost everything is already discovered, and all that remains is to fill a few holes. " Thankfully, Planck didn’t listen. A century later, the world is abuzz with quantum computing—a technology and a concept so complex that, for many of us, it’s indistinguishable from magic. From Planck’s quaint beginnings of pondering blackbody radiation to today’s quantum leaps towards quantum computing, the evolution of quantum theory has been nothing short of extraordinary. This leap in understanding has opened the door to numerous practical applications of quantum computing, from optimizing complex logistics to revolutionizing cryptography and beyond. Quantum computers represent a radical leap in computational capability—it’s like comparing Star Trek warp drive to a horse-drawn carriage; both get you from point A to point B, but one does it a few million years faster and with a lot less hay. Think of quantum computers not as an evolution of classical computers, but as a divergence—a parallel development in computing that, for some sets of problems, can deliver speedups even bigger than warp drive compared to a carriage. I’m not even exaggerating. Quantum computers promise (or threaten) to break some of our cryptography in minutes, compared to the billions or trillions of years it would take a classical computer. At the heart of this revolution is the fundamental difference in how these two types of machines process information. Classical computers use bits as the... --- ### EU Launches Quantum Technologies Flagship > On October 29, 2018, the European Commission officially kicked off its ambitious Quantum Technologies Flagship initiative, - Published: 2018-11-01 - Modified: 2025-04-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-quantum-technologies-flagship/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe On October 29, 2018, following the Quantum Manifesto published in 2016, the European Commission officially kicked off its ambitious Quantum Technologies Flagship initiative, marking a significant step in Europe's commitment to quantum technology development. The initiative, backed by the European Commission, allocates over €1 billion in funding to support more than 5,000 of Europe's leading quantum technology researchers over the next decade. The Flagship Initiative aims to facilitate breakthroughs in quantum technology through a comprehensive and coordinated research effort spanning various projects across the EU. This initiative is part of Europe's strategic plan to become a global leader in the field of quantum technologies, enhancing innovation, security, and competitiveness in the digital age. The funded projects under this initiative cover a broad spectrum of quantum technologies, from basic research to market-ready applications, ensuring a holistic approach to the development of quantum capabilities in Europe. The initiative not only focuses on advancing the state of the art in quantum computing, quantum communication, and quantum sensing but also aims to address societal challenges through quantum technologies, ensuring Europe's technological sovereignty in this critical field. For more information refer to the press release detailing the launch. --- ### The Argument Against Quantum Computers > Quanta Magazine just published an interesting article, “The Argument Against Quantum Computers,” discussing quantum computing skepticism... - Published: 2018-02-09 - Modified: 2024-05-31 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/against-quantum-computers/ - Categories: Industry News And now for something different from our regular programming. Quanta Magazine just published an interesting article, “The Argument Against Quantum Computers,” by Katia Moskvitch. The article discusses Gil Kalai’s skepticism about the feasibility of quantum computers. Kalai, a mathematician, argues that quantum computers will struggle with noise and error correction, making them impractical. He believes that the inherent noise in quantum systems will corrupt computations, preventing them from achieving quantum supremacy. Despite significant investments and efforts by major tech companies and governments, Kalai remains doubtful that quantum computers will ever function as intended due to these fundamental challenges. Read the article here: The Argument Against Quantum Computers. --- ### Shor’s Algorithm: A Quantum Threat to Modern Cryptography > Shor’s Algorithm is more than just a theoretical curiosity – it’s a wake-up call for the security community... - Published: 2017-10-18 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/shors-algorithm-a-quantum-threat/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Shor’s Algorithm is more than just a theoretical curiosity – it’s a wake-up call for the security community. By understanding its principles and implications, we can appreciate why the cryptographic landscape must evolve. The goal of this guide is to equip you with that understanding, without delving into complex mathematics, so you can make informed decisions about protecting your organization’s data against the quantum threat. IntroductionBackground on RSA EncryptionHow RSA works (conceptually)Why factoring large numbers mattersReal-world uses of RSAThe takeawayThe Threat of Quantum Computing to RSAWhy classical computers struggle with factoringHow quantum computing is differentQuantum vs Classical for factoringUnderstanding Shor’s AlgorithmProblem setup – reducing factoring to period-findingWhere quantum kicks in – the period-finding machineWhy Shor’s Algorithm is efficientShor’s Algorithm (Conceptual Steps)Cybersecurity ImplicationsBreaking RSA, DH, and ECCTimeline – How close are we to “Q-day”? Industry and expert concernsPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Mitigation StrategiesNIST’s PQC Standardization ProcessTypes of Post-Quantum AlgorithmsHybrid Cryptography – a transition strategySymmetric cryptography and other mitigationsSummary of PQC approachesConclusionRecommendations for cybersecurity professionalsSources(This article was updated in Dec 2024) Introduction Modern cryptography is the backbone of cybersecurity, protecting everything from personal messages to critical infrastructure. It employs mathematical techniques to secure data – ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of information in transit and storage​. Every day, encryption shields countless digital interactions: securing email and messaging, safeguarding online banking and e-commerce transactions, and protecting state secrets. In fact, encryption carries a heavy load in modern digitized society, guarding electronic secrets like email content, medical records, and information vital to national security​. Thanks to cryptography, sensitive data can traverse public networks unreadable to anyone but the intended recipient​ making it an indispensable tool in the cyber defender’s arsenal. At the heart of many cryptographic systems is the concept of a one-way function – a mathematical operation that’s easy to perform in one direction but extremely difficult to reverse without a special key. One prominent example is the multiplication of large prime numbers: multiplying two primes is easy, but finding the original prime factors from their product (a process called factorization) is incredibly hard. Modern encryption algorithms leverage this asymmetry. RSA, one of the most widely used public-key cryptosystems, bases its security on the difficulty of factoring large... --- ### Grover’s Algorithm and Its Impact on Cybersecurity > Grover’s algorithm is a fundamental quantum computing algorithm that dramatically accelerates unstructured search tasks... - Published: 2017-08-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/grovers-algorithm/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Grover’s algorithm was one of the first demonstrations of quantum advantage on a general problem. It highlighted how quantum phenomena like superposition and interference can be harnessed to outperform classical brute force search. Grover’s is often described as looking for “a needle in a haystack” using quantum mechanics. Introduction to Grover’s AlgorithmSignificance in Quantum ComputingRelevance to CybersecurityIntuitive Explanation of Grover’s AlgorithmMathematical FoundationComparison with Classical Search AlgorithmsComparison with Other Quantum AlgorithmsCybersecurity Implications of Grover’s AlgorithmImpact on Symmetric EncryptionImpact on Hash FunctionsImpact on Digital SignaturesImpact on Brute-force Attacks (Passwords and Keys)Practical Implementations of Grover’s AlgorithmMitigation Strategies Against Grover’s AlgorithmIncrease Key Sizes for Symmetric AlgorithmsEmbrace Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Crypto Agility and System UpdatesKey Length Recommendations and GuidelinesAlternative Measures: Quantum-resistant protocols and QKDHybrid Cryptographic ApproachesFuture OutlookScaling of Quantum ComputersAdvancements in Grover’s Algorithm and Quantum TechniquesLong-term Cybersecurity AdaptationConclusionIntroduction to Grover’s Algorithm Grover’s algorithm is a fundamental quantum computing algorithm that dramatically accelerates unstructured search tasks. Developed by Lov Grover in 1996, it showed how a quantum computer can find a target item in an unsorted “database” of size N in roughly O(√N) steps, compared to O(N) steps classically​. In essence, Grover’s algorithm finds with high probability the unique input to a black-box function that produces a desired output value, using only O(√N) evaluations​. This quadratic speedup, while not as extreme as some other quantum algorithms, is significant – for example, searching a list of 1,000,000 items would take about 1,000,000 tries classically on average, but only ~1,000 tries with Grover’s algorithm on a quantum computer​. Significance in Quantum Computing Grover’s algorithm was one of the first demonstrations of quantum advantage on a general problem. It highlighted how quantum phenomena like superposition and interference can be harnessed to outperform classical brute force search. Grover’s is often described as looking for “a needle in a haystack” using quantum mechanics – it finds the needle in roughly the square root of the haystack size, which is vastly faster than checking each piece of hay one by one. Relevance to Cybersecurity Many cryptographic schemes rely on problems that are intractable to brute-force search. Grover’s algorithm directly threatens such... --- ### Quantum-Safe vs. Quantum-Secure Cryptography > I want to explain the differences between the terms "quantum-safe" and "quantum-secure", and why these distinctions matter... - Published: 2017-06-13 - Modified: 2024-05-31 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-safe-secure-cryptography/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In 2010, I was serving as an interim CISO for an investment bank. During that time, I was already trying to figure out the risks posed by quantum computing. One day, I was approached by a vendor who, with great confidence, made two bold claims. First, they insisted that the Q-Day is just around the corner, claiming they had insider information from the NSA suggesting CRQCs were mere weeks away. This, of course, was a load of rubbish. The second claim was even more audacious: they guaranteed that their algorithms were quantum-secure, offering absolute security against any quantum attack. These statements have since become my personal pet peeve as I am increasingly dealing with the quantum risk in my practice. The potential threat of quantum computing is a massive problem, and there will undoubtedly be a market for all vendors that can genuinely provide solutions. Making such exaggerations unnecessary and misleading. So, I'd like to explain the differences between the terms "quantum-safe" and "quantum-secure", and why these distinctions matter. These terms are frequently mentioned, often interchangeably, but they carry distinct meanings that are crucial to understand. Quantum-safe (or Quantum-Resistant) cryptographic methods are those that are believed to be resistant to attacks by quantum computers. These methods are designed with the understanding that quantum computers can solve certain mathematical problems much faster than classical computers, rendering many of our current cryptographic techniques obsolete. See "What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction. " Quantum-safe algorithms are thus seen as a safer choice compared to classical cryptographic methods, which are vulnerable to quantum attacks. However, calling these methods "safe" rather than "secure" underscores the fact that this confidence is based on our current understanding and assumptions. In other words, they are believed to be secure against known quantum attacks, but have not... --- ### Key Principles and Theorems in Quantum Computing and Networks > From Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to entanglement, these concepts are the building blocks of the quantum revolution... - Published: 2016-09-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/principles-theorems/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The landscape of quantum computing and quantum networks is an exciting frontier where physics and cybersecurity intersect. We’re witnessing the early days of this quantum revolution. As quantum hardware scales and quantum protocols move from labs to real-world deployment, security experts will need to collaborate with physicists like never before. By mastering concepts like Heisenberg’s uncertainty, Bell’s theorem, and the no-cloning rule, cybersecurity professionals equip themselves to navigate this new terrain. IntroductionKey Principles and TheoremsHeisenberg’s Uncertainty PrincipleNo-Cloning TheoremBell’s Theorem & Quantum EntanglementSuperpositionQuantum DecoherenceQuantum TunnelingQuantum Measurement ProblemEntanglement SwappingReal-World Applications and ExamplesQuantum Key Distribution (QKD)Quantum Algorithms and CryptanalysisQuantum Error Correction and Computing ProgressQuantum Networks and TeleportationCybersecurity ImplicationsHow These Principles Tie Together(This article, originally written in 2016, was updated in 2024 to highlight latest achievements) Introduction Quantum mechanics has upended our classical intuitions, revealing a world where particles can exist in multiple states at once and influence each other across vast distances. These strange phenomena are no longer just scientific curiosities—they form the foundation of quantum computing and quantum networks. In essence, quantum technologies harness effects like superposition and entanglement to process information in ways impossible for classical systems. For the cybersecurity professional, this is a double-edged sword. On one hand, quantum computers threaten to break many of today’s cryptographic algorithms by solving certain mathematical problems exponentially faster than classical machines​. On the other, quantum physics offers new defenses: for example, quantum key distribution (QKD) uses the laws of physics (instead of computational complexity) to enable provably secure communication, making undetected eavesdropping fundamentally impossible​. Understanding the key principles behind these technologies is crucial for anticipating both the risks and opportunities they bring to cybersecurity. Below, I'll introduce the core quantum-mechanical principles and theorems—each explained in accessible terms—before exploring real-world applications and security implications. From Heisenberg’s famous uncertainty principle to the mind-bending phenomenon of entanglement, these concepts are the building blocks of the quantum revolution that is now underway. Quantum-secured messages are already being sent in the real world, such as bank transfers and election results protected by QKD​, even as researchers race to build more powerful quantum computers. By grasping how these principles work, cybersecurity experts can better prepare for a future where quantum technology is part of the security landscape. Key Principles and... --- ### Qubits: A Brief Introduction for Cybersecurity Professionals > A qubit is the quantum analog of a classical bit – it’s the basic unit of quantum information. However, unlike a classical bit... - Published: 2016-09-02 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/qubits-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Quantum Computing A qubit is the quantum analog of a classical bit – it’s the basic unit of quantum information. However, unlike a classical bit that can only be 0 or 1 at any given time, a qubit can exist in a combination of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously. This property is called superposition. IntroductionWhat Is a Qubit (and How Is It Different from a Bit)? Mathematical Representation of a QubitState Superposition NotationBloch Sphere RepresentationKey Quantum Concepts: Superposition, Entanglement, and MeasurementRelevance to Cybersecurity: Quantum Crypto and Post-Quantum PreparednessQuantum Key Distribution (QKD)Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)ConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is an emerging field that promises to solve certain problems far faster than classical computers. Its fundamental unit of information is the qubit (quantum bit). For cybersecurity professionals, understanding qubits and their properties is key to grasping how quantum technologies might impact encryption, secure communications, and cryptography. This article introduces what qubits are, how they are described mathematically, key quantum operations, and why they matter in cybersecurity. What Is a Qubit (and How Is It Different from a Bit)? A qubit is the quantum analog of a classical bit – it’s the basic unit of quantum information. However, unlike a classical bit that can only be 0 or 1 at any given time, a qubit can exist in a combination of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously. This property is called superposition. In practical terms, a classical binary bit has to be in one of two possible states (0 or 1), whereas a qubit can represent 0, 1, or any proportion of 0 and 1 at the same time, with certain probabilities for each​. This means a qubit holds more information than a bit because it can explore many states at once until it’s measured. In essence, quantum mechanics allows a qubit to be in multiple states simultaneously, which is a fundamental departure from classical computing behavior. Mathematical Representation of a Qubit State Superposition Notation Quantum states are often described using Dirac bra-ket notation. A single qubit’s state is written as: $$∣ψ⟩=α ∣0⟩+β ∣1⟩,|\psi\rangle = \alpha\,|0\rangle + \beta\,|1\rangle,∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩$$, where $$∣0⟩|0\rangle∣0⟩$$ and $$∣1⟩|1\rangle∣1⟩$$ are the two basis states (read “ket 0” and... --- ### Bell States: An Introduction for Cybersecurity Professionals > Bell states are a set of four specific quantum states of two qubits (quantum bits) that are entangled. In simple terms, an entangled pair of qubits... - Published: 2016-08-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/bell-states-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Bell states are a set of four specific quantum states of two qubits (quantum bits) that are entangled. In simple terms, an entangled pair of qubits behaves as one system, no matter how far apart they are. Bell states are the simplest and most extreme examples of this phenomenon​. They are fundamental to quantum mechanics because they exhibit correlations between particles that have no classical equivalent – a showcase of the “spooky” interconnectedness allowed by quantum physics. What Are Bell States? The Four Bell States and NotationEntanglement in Bell States: An Intuitive ExplanationRelevance to Cybersecurity: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)Quantum technologies are emerging as a new frontier in cybersecurity. And having acted at the intersection of the two for a while, I often get asked for clarification of some of the key quantum concepts by my cybersecurity colleagues. One foundational concept in quantum computing and communication is the Bell state, which plays a key role in enabling ultra-secure communication methods like Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). This article introduces Bell states in clear terms, assuming no prior quantum computing background, and highlights their relevance to security professionals. What Are Bell States? Bell states are a set of four specific quantum states of two qubits (quantum bits) that are entangled. In simple terms, an entangled pair of qubits behaves as one system, no matter how far apart they are. Bell states are the simplest and most extreme examples of this phenomenon​. They are fundamental to quantum mechanics because they exhibit correlations between particles that have no classical equivalent – a showcase of the “spooky” interconnectedness allowed by quantum physics. These states are also a crucial resource in quantum communication, underpinning protocols like quantum teleportation and quantum cryptography​. (Recall: a qubit is like a quantum version of a bit. It can exist in state |0⟩ or |1⟩ (analogous to binary 0 or 1), or in a superposition of both until measured. ) Why “Bell” states? They are named after physicist John S. Bell, who studied such entangled states to test the foundations of quantum theory. Bell states are sometimes also called EPR pairs, after Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen, who first pondered these strange correlations. In essence, Bell states represent two-qubit systems with the strongest possible quantum correlations, making them maximally entangled pairs. The Four... --- - [Why I Founded Applied Quantum – The First Pure-Play, End-to-End Quantum Consultancy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/applied-quantum-focused/): Applied Quantum is the first and only end-to-end pure-play 100% quantum--focused professional services firm... - [How Quantum Could Break Through Amdahl’s Law and Computing’s Limits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-amdahls-law/): A fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get... - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in South Korea](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-south-korea/): South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy... - [D-Wave Claims Quantum Supremacy with Quantum Annealing](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-quantum-advantage/): D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” - [NIST Picks HQC as New Post-Quantum Encryption Candidate](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-hqc-pqc/): Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - [Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC) with Erasure Qubits](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/fault-tolerant-erasure-qubits/): Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in the Middle East](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-middle-east/): Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - [The Race Toward FTQC: Ocelot, Majorana, Willow, Heron, Zuchongzhi](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fault-tolerant-quantum-race/): Race to fault-tolerant quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses... - [Zuchongzhi 3.0 Quantum Chip: Technical Analysis and Implications](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-3-0-quantum-chip/): China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor - [Quantum Geopolitics: The Global Race for Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-geopolitics/): Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications... - [AWS Announces Ocelot Chip for Ultra-Reliable Qubits](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/aws-ocelot-quantum-chip/): Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone... - [AI and Quantum Sensing: A Perfect Synergy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ai-quantum-sensing/): AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest... - [Quantum Use Cases in Telecom](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-telecom/): Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we operate networks - [Microsoft’s Majorana-Based Quantum Chip - Beyond the Hype](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana-1-hype/): In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design... - [Quantum Use Cases in Healthcare & Medical Research](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-healthcare/): Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point... - [Russia Unveils First 50-Qubit Quantum Computer Prototype](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/russia-50-qubit-quantum/): Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - [China’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum/): For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope... - [Quantum Technology Initiatives in Singapore and ASEAN](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-singapore-asean/): ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s... - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Russia](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-russia/): Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - [Google Announces Willow Quantum Chip](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-willow-quantum-chip/): Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing... - [Quantum Computing Benchmarks: RCS, QV, AQ, and More](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-benchmarks/): Researchers have developed specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance... - [Adiabatic Quantum (AQC) and Cyber (2024 Update)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-annealing-cyber/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem... - [Quantum Technology Initiatives in Europe and EU](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-europe-eu/): Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor... - [IBM Unveils 156-Qubit ‘Heron R2’ Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r2-quantum/): IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor - Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio - [Quantum Hacking: Cybersecurity of Quantum Systems](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-hacking/): While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity​​. As quantum computing moves into cloud... - [Quantum AI: Harnessing Quantum Computing for AI (2024 Update)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-ai-qai/): Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with capabilities of AI... - [Quantum Sensing - Key Use Cases](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-use-cases/): At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately... - [Guide to Quantum ML for Data Scientists](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-machine-learning-qml/): Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional machine learning. - [Australia Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-australia/): Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning... - [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Meets Quantum AI (QAI)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-quantum-ai-qai/): Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Aerospace & Automotive](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-aerospace-automotive/): Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Finance & Banking](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-finance-banking/): Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector... - [India Tests First Indigenous 6-Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/india-6-qubit-quantum-processor/): India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Government & Defense](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-government-defense/): Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises... - [Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible, Safe, Secure AI](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/responsible-ai-secure-ai/): Addressing the Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible AI, Trustworthy AI, Secure AI, Ethical AI, and Safe AI Explained - [Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in the USA](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/us-quantum/): The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system... - [NIST Unveils Post‑Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Standards](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-standards/): NIST has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms... - [Myths and Realities of Quantum Commercialization](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/myths-quantum-commercialization/): Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty... - [Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in Canada](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-canada/): Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal... - [NIST to Release PQC Algorithms in the Summer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-summer/): The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks... - [Bridging the Quantum Lab-to-Market Gap: How External Experts Boost Tech Transfer](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-external-tto/): Quantum’s big wins will come from breaking silos and working together. Universities, TTOs, scientists, entrepreneurs, investors... - [Quantum Computing Use Cases in Materials & Chemicals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-materials-chemicals/): Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. - [China Unveils Xiaohong: A 504-Qubit Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-xiaohong/): Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip... - [Hole-Spin Qubits Demonstrated in Silicon FinFETs](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/hole-spin-qubits/): Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by demonstrating a controllable interaction between hole-spin qubits... - [From Lab Breakthroughs to Quantum Boom: Why the Time to Commercialize is Now](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-commercialization/): External quantum commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the expertise that most academic teams lack... - [Major Leap for Quantum Internet: First Critical Connection](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/imperial-quantum-internet/): In a pioneering achievement, researchers have established a crucial connection necessary for the quantum internet... - [New Legislation to Boost U.S. DoD Quantum Capabilities](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/dod-quantum-bill/): A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's integration of quantum - [EU Publishes a Recommendation on Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-recommendation-post-quantum/): EU publishes "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography" - [Microsoft Announces Record Breaking Logical Qubit Results](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/logical-qubit-microsoft/): Microsoft and Quantinuum announced a significant achievement in quantum computing, demonstrating the most reliable logical qubits on record - [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Switzerland](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-switzerland/): Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative... - [Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) Quantum Risk Advisory](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mas-quantum-advisory/): Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issues "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum" - [Quantum Repeaters: The Key to Long-Distance Quantum Comms](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-repeaters/): Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which qubits can be sent - [Quantum Technologies & Quantum Computing in the UK](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-united-kingdom/): The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. - [Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction by Nord Quantique](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/error-correction-nord-quantique/): Researchers from Nord Quantique have developed an innovative error correction system that drastically reduces the number of qubits needed... - [Origin Quantum’s Wukong: China’s 72-Qubit Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/origin-quantum-wukong/): In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit... - [What is Entanglement-as-a-Service (EaaS)?](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-service-eaas/): Entanglement-as-a-Service (EAAS) is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly... - [Marin's Statement on AI Risks](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/marin-statement-on-ai-risk/): The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded, non-aligned, recursive self-improvement and disseminating new capabilities to other AIs is a concern - [India’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-india/): India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining... - [IBM Unveils Next-Gen 133-Qubit ‘Heron’ Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-133-qubit-heron-quantum/): IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances.... - [2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-timeline-report/): 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - [IBM Unveils Condor: 1,121‑Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-condor/): IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. - [UK NCS Issues Guidance on Preparing for PQC](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-ncsc-post-quantum-cryptography/): The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography," - [Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/taxonomy-paradigms/): Why multiple quantum computing paradigms? The goal is the same – realize a scalable, universal quantum computer – but the approaches differ... - [99.5% Fidelity in Neutral-Atom Qubits Achieved](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quera-neutral-atom/): A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99.5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic Cluster-State QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-cluster-state/): Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons that have been... - [Over 1,000 Controllable Atomic Qubits Achieved](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/1000-atomic-qubits/): Over 1,000 controllable atomic qubits in one single plane achieved by researchers from TU Darmstadt in Germany. As published in arXiv for now... - [Quantum Memories in Quantum Networking and Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-memories/): Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties... - [Quantum LiDAR vs. Quantum Radar](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-lidar-quantum-radar/): Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Ion Trap and Neutral Atom MBQC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/ion-trap-neutral-atom-mbqc/): Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms... - [Jiuzhang 3.0: China’s Photonic Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-3/): Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons... - [Quantum Computing Breakthrough Achieved with Neutral-Atoms](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/neutral-atom-breakthrough/): Researchers from Harvard, MIT and QuEra have achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by successfully implementing... - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Energy & Utilities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-energy-utilities/): Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Superconducting Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/superconducting-qubits/): Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction... - [Quantum Use Cases in Pharma & Biotech](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-use-cases-pharma-biotech/): Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharma and biotech industries. Its ability to tackle problems... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Holonomic (Geometric Phase) QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/holonomic-geometric-phase/): Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-quantum-computing/): Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Trapped-Ion QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/trapped-ion-qubits/): Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Adiabatic Topological QC (ATQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/adiabatic-topological/): Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Neuromorphic QC (NQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/neuromorphic-quantum-computing/): Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Topological QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/topological-quantum-computing/): Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Adiabatic QC (AQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/adiabatic-quantum/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors & Defects](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/spin-qubits-defects/): One well-known example for spin-qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Silicon-Based Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/silicon-based-qubits/): Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/measurement-based-mbqc/): Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is... - [New Coalition Launched to Tackle Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mitre-coalition/): The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Neutral Atom (Rydberg) QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/neutral-atom-quantum/): Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Annealing (QA)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-annealing/): Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Walk QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-walk/): Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker"... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Fibonacci Anyons](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/fibonacci-anyons/): Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: QA With Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/annealing-boost-bang-bang/): Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Dissipative QC (DQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/dissipative-quantum/): Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Majorana Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/majorana-qubits/): Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Biological QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/biological-quantum/): Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Boson Sampling QC (Gaussian & Non-Gaussian)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/boson-sampling/): Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-cellular-automata/): Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Time Crystals' Potential QC Use](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/time-crystals-quantum/): Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: DNA-Based QIP](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/dna-based-quantum/): DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: One-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/one-clean-qubit-dqc1/): The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Exotic and Emerging QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/exotic-emerging-quantum/): Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic Continuous-Variable QC (CVQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-continuous-variable/): Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Hybrid QC Architectures](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/hybrid-quantum-computing/): Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) & Cluster States](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-ldpc-cluster-states/): Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Gate-Based / Universal QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/gate-based-universal-quantum/): Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Annealing (QA) & Adiabatic QC (AQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/annealing-adiabatic/): Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve... - [Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) in Living Cells](https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/cellular-automata-cells/): Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - [Ethical and Privacy Implications of Quantum Sensing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ethics-privacy-quantum-sensing/): We have entered a new era where age-old expectations of privacy must be redefined for the quantum age... - [New Hybrid Quantum Monte Carlo Algorithm](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/new-hybrid-quantum-monte-carlo/): Researchers developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical... - [Q-Day Predictions: Anticipating the Arrival of CRQC](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/q-day-crqc-predictions/): While the exact arrival date of Q-Day remains uncertain, the necessity for immediate and strategic preparation does not. - [Quantum Readiness for Mission-Critical Communications (MCC)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-mcc/): Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response - [Fidelity in Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fidelity-quantum/): While the number of qubits in a quantum processor is an important metric, fidelity and error correction are equally, if not more, significant - [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Supply Chain & Logistics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-logistics/): Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally... - [Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL) Risk](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/harvest-now-decrypt-later-hndl/): "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL) is a cybersecurity threat where adversaries collect encrypted data today to decrypt it in the future - [Post-Quantum Cryptography PQC Challenges](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-pqc-challenges/): While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant PQC challenges that must be understood and addressed... - [Quantum Errors and Quantum Error Correction Methods](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-error-correction/): Quantum error correction (QEC) is critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum... - [Quantum Era Demands Changes to ALL Enterprise Systems](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-enterprise-changes/): Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. It is not just about changes to a few systems; it requires an enterprise-wide... - [Report "The Quantum Threat to the US Financial System"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-us-financial-system/): Report published. Claiming a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could lead to losses of between $2 and $3.3 trillion in GDP. - [Inside NIST’s PQC: Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nists-pqc-technical/): In 2022 NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption... - [Quantum Networks 101: An Intro for Cyber Professionals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-networks-101/): Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the internet - [Google Claims Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-breakthrough-error-correction/): Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step towards... - [Quantum Radar: The Next Frontier of Stealth Detection and Beyond](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-radar/): Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. - [The Future of Digital Signatures in a Post-Quantum World](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-digital-signatures/): The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into lattices and hashes... - [Quantum Sensing - Introduction and Taxonomy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-intro-taxonomy/): Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental... - [Scientists Achieve Entanglement Between Two Light Sources](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/two-light-sources-entanglement/): In a new study, researchers managed to create entanglement between two quantum emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly... - [Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc/): Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity... - [Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-preparedness-act/): On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H.R.7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act... - [2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/2022-quantum-threat-timeline-report/): 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - [IBM Osprey: A 433-Qubit Quantum Leap](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-osprey/): IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of 2022 - [Entanglement Distribution Techniques in Quantum Networks](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-distribution/): Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical... - [Cat Qubits 101](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cat-qubits-101/): Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat... - [ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-integration/): The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study" - [Mitigating Quantum Threats Beyond PQC](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/mitigating-quantum-threats-pqc/): A common misconception is that adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) alone will solve the problem. There are other mitigation approaches... - [Introduction to Crypto-Agility](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/introduction-crypto-agility/): The field of cryptography is about to become much more dynamic. Which will require organizations to become crypto-agile. What is crypto-agility? - [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Introduction](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-cryptography-pqc/): Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by... - [Quantum Teleportation](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-teleportation/): Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without... - [Transmon Qubits 101](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/transmon-qubits-101/): Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. - [White House - Quantum Related National Security Memorandum](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/white-house-quantum-security-memo/): On May 4, 2022, the White House issued National Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing... - [Dos & Don'ts of Crypto Inventories for Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/manual-cryptographic-inventories/): Manual, interview-based, surrvey-based, spreadsheet-based cryptographic inventories are insufficient and potentially detrimental... - [Record-Breaking Quantum Transmission Via Micius](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/micius-quantum-communications/): A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication via Micius satellite​... - [National Initiatives in Quantum Technologies (as of April 2022)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/global-initiatives-quantum/): Countries are actively enhancing their capabilities through quantum-related strategic initiatives and regulatory frameworks - [Glossary of Quantum Computing Terms](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/glossary-quantum-cyber/): Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals - [IBM Eagle: The First 100+ Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-eagle/): IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits​. - [Ready for Quantum: Practical Steps for Cybersecurity Teams](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/practical-steps-quantum/): Practical preparation for Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) and Q-Day—when quantum computing will break cryptography - [Zuchongzhi 2.0: China’s Superconducting Quantum Leap](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-2-0/): A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype - [Next-Generation QKD Protocols: A Cybersecurity Perspective](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/next-generation-qkd/): Next-generation QKD protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities... - [Zuchongzhi 1.0: China's New Superconducting Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-1/): In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting... - [ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography" Report](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-state/): The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation" - [Evaluating Tokenization in the Context of Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/tokenization-quantum-readiness/): One often overlooked yet highly promising approach to quantum readiness is tokenization which can reduce dependence on quantum-vulnerable... - [Quantum Computing - Looming Threat to Telecom Security](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-telecom/): Learn practical steps to protect every device in your telecommunications organization from looming quantum computing threats. - [Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) and Impact on Cyber](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-cyber/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its subset Quantum Annealing, are another models for quantum computation focused on optimization... - [China’s Jiuzhang Achieves Photonic Quantum Advantage](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-jiuzhang-quantum/): A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum chip - [Early History of Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/history-quantum-computing/): Brief history of quantum computing from quantum mechanics theory to practical implementations of quantum computers - [Entanglement-Based QKD Protocols: E91 and BBM92](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/entanglement-based-qkd/): Entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications... - [Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and the BB84 Protocol](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qkd-bb84/): Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics... - [The Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate in Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cnot-gate-quantum/): The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations... - [Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) Benchmark](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/rcs-benchmark/): At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. - [Breaking RSA-2048 With 20M Noisy Qubit](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/breaking-rsa-2048-20m/): Paper authors claim that their construction's spacetime volume for factoring RSA-2048 integers is a hundredfold less than earlier estimates - [The Quantum Computing Threat](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-security/): Along with exciting new capabilities that will serve humanity in general, quantum computing also ushers in an era of expanded cyber risks. - [Google’s Sycamore Achieves Quantum Supremacy](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-sycamore/): Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy” - [Challenges of Upgrading to Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-challenges/): The shift to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention... - [What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-introduction/): I'll try and break down the concepts of quantum computing, explore why it's better than classical computing for certain tasks, and discuss... - [Introduction to Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-random-number-generation-qrng/): Unlike classical methods, QRNG leverages the inherent unpredictability of quantum mechanics. At the quantum level, particles such as photons... - [U.S. National Quantum Initiative Act](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/us-quantum-initiative-act/): On December 21, 2018, the United States solidified its commitment to quantum technology by enacting the National Quantum Initiative Act - [Introducing Quantum AI](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-artificial-intelligence-qai/): Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. - [Why Do Quantum Computers Look So Weird?](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computer-weird/): The iconic look of superconducting quantum computers' "chandelier" causes lots of questions and discussions. For a simple introduction see... - [Quantum Computing Use Cases](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-use-cases/): While quantum computing is still in its early stages, with practical and widespread use yet to be realized, the potential it holds is transformative... - [EU Launches Quantum Technologies Flagship](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-quantum-technologies-flagship/): On October 29, 2018, the European Commission officially kicked off its ambitious Quantum Technologies Flagship initiative, - [The Argument Against Quantum Computers](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/against-quantum-computers/): Quanta Magazine just published an interesting article, “The Argument Against Quantum Computers,” discussing quantum computing skepticism... - [Shor’s Algorithm: A Quantum Threat to Modern Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/shors-algorithm-a-quantum-threat/): Shor’s Algorithm is more than just a theoretical curiosity – it’s a wake-up call for the security community... - [Grover’s Algorithm and Its Impact on Cybersecurity](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/grovers-algorithm/): Grover’s algorithm is a fundamental quantum computing algorithm that dramatically accelerates unstructured search tasks... - [Quantum-Safe vs. Quantum-Secure Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-safe-secure-cryptography/): I want to explain the differences between the terms "quantum-safe" and "quantum-secure", and why these distinctions matter... - [Key Principles and Theorems in Quantum Computing and Networks](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/principles-theorems/): From Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to entanglement, these concepts are the building blocks of the quantum revolution... - [Qubits: A Brief Introduction for Cybersecurity Professionals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/qubits-cybersecurity/): A qubit is the quantum analog of a classical bit – it’s the basic unit of quantum information. However, unlike a classical bit... - [Bell States: An Introduction for Cybersecurity Professionals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/bell-states-cybersecurity/): Bell states are a set of four specific quantum states of two qubits (quantum bits) that are entangled. In simple terms, an entangled pair of qubits... --- # # Detailed Content ## Pages ### Quantum Articles - Switzerland - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-11 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-switzerland-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Russia - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-russia-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - India - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-india-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - South Korea - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-south-korea-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Telecommunications - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-telecommunications-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Supply Chain & Logistics - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-logistics-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-pharma-biotech-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Materials & Chemicals - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-materials-chemicals-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Healthcare & Medical Research - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-healthcare-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Government & Defense - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-government-defense-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Finance & Banking - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-finance-banking-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Energy & Utilities - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-energy-utilities-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Aerospace & Automotive - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-aerospace-automotive-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - United States - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-united-states-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - United Kingdom - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-united-kingdom-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Middle East - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-middle-east-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Europe - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-europe-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - China - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-china-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Canada - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-canada-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - Australia - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-australia-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Quantum Articles - ASEAN - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-asean-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Articles by Industry - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/articles-industry-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Articles by Country - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2025-03-09 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/articles-countries-quantum-marin-ivezic/ --- ### Articles - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2024-05-25 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/articles-post-quantum/ --- ### Industry News - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2024-05-25 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news-post-quantum/ --- ### Terms and Conditions > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2023-09-17 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/terms-and-conditions/ Terms and Conditions --- ### Cookie Policy > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2023-09-17 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/cookie-policy/ Cookie Policy --- ### Privacy Policy > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2023-09-17 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/privacy-policy/ Privacy Policy --- ### PostQuantum.com - Quantum Computing, Quantum Security > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2023-09-11 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/tiehome/ --- ### Marin Ivezic > Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy - Published: 2023-05-21 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/marin-ivezic/ I am the Founder of Applied Quantum, a research-driven professional services firm dedicated to helping organizations unlock the transformative power of quantum technologies. Alongside leading its specialized service, Secure Quantum—focused on quantum resilience and post-quantum cryptography—I also invest in cutting-edge quantum ventures through Quantum. Partners. Currently, I’m completing a PhD in Quantum Computing and authoring an upcoming book "Practical Quantum Resistance," while regularly sharing news and insights on quantum computing and quantum security at PostQuantum. com. I’m primarily a cybersecurity and tech risk expert with more than three decades of experience, particularly in critical infrastructure cyber protection. That focus drew me into quantum computing in the early 2000s, and I’ve been captivated by its opportunities and risks ever since. So my experience in quantum tech stretches back decades, having previously founded Boston Photonics and PQ Defense where I engaged in quantum-related R&D well before the field’s mainstream emergence. More recently, I served as a Partner at PwC and KPMG, leading cybersecurity and emerging technology initiatives across firms in Asia-Pacific, the Middle East, and North America. I also held Asia-Pacific and global leadership roles at IBM and Accenture, where I oversaw technology transformation projects of up to $500 million and acted as an interim global CISO and CTO for major telecommunications and financial services firms. Beyond quantum, I’ve regularly been tasked with understanding and mitigating the risks of emerging technologies. Over the past 30 years, I’ve built and managed emerging tech risk labs for various organizations and governments. Through those initiatives, I researched AI security since the mid-2000s and explored crypto and blockchain security since the early 2010s, eventually authoring multiple books and articles on these subjects. I continue to advise and serve on the boards of multiple related niche startups. Today, with quantum computing finally on the horizon, I’ve returned... --- ### Marin's Q-Day Predictions (Timeline) > PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q - Published: 2020-04-11 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/marin-q-day-prediction/ A series of breakthroughs, from improved quantum computing algorithms to enhanced error correction and quantum hardware scaling, signals a shift in the quantum computing landscape. In my opinion. These developments indicate that quantum supremacy and cryptographically relevant quantum computing (CRQC) are transitioning from primarily scientific challenges to practical engineering problems. I have decided to track and document all significant research papers and engineering milestones below. This timeline aims to forecast the arrival of Q-Day, the day when quantum computing will become powerful and stable enough to break current encryption algorithms. --- ## Posts ### Why I Founded Applied Quantum – The First Pure-Play, End-to-End Quantum Consultancy > Applied Quantum is the first and only end-to-end pure-play 100% quantum--focused professional services firm... - Published: 2025-03-17 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/applied-quantum-focused/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Applied Quantum is a firm that for the first time would be 100% dedicated to quantum technology services – not as a sideline, not as one emerging tech practice among many, but as the entire mission of the company, and it would cover the field end-to-end. We founded Applied Quantum to be the first and only end-to-end pure-play quantum professional services firm precisely because generalist consulting firms were not cutting it. Enterprises and governments deserve a partner that lives and breathes quantum every single day. A Personal Journey on the Quantum FrontierThe State of Quantum Computing Today: From Science to EngineeringFilling the Gap: Building a Pure-Play Quantum Services FirmWhy Quantum Readiness Matters (and Why It’s Not a Checkbox)Walking Away from a Big 4 to Pursue the MissionThe Quantum Future Is Coming – Let’s Get ReadyLeaving the comfortable perch of a Big 4 partnership to start a new company is not a decision one makes lightly. Which is why many of you contacted me, confused after my recent announcement. Yet that decision is exactly what I did when I joined Applied Quantum, the first and only end-to-end professional services firm dedicated 100% to quantum computing, quantum tech, quantum security, and quantum readiness. Let me explain. A Personal Journey on the Quantum Frontier My journey with quantum computing began long before “quantum” was a business buzzword. I co-founded a startup called Boston Photonics, aiming to pioneer photonic quantum computing. In hindsight, we were way ahead of the market – an exciting vision launched far too early. While Boston Photonics didn’t become a billion-dollar success, the experience was invaluable. It taught me that timing and practicality are just as crucial as technical vision. Moving on from that early venture, I went back to large consulting firms (IBM, Accenture, Big 4) where I focused on leading cybersecurity, tech risk and emerging tech practices advising (or serving as an interim CISO or CTO) in large enterprises and governments around the world. In each of these roles, quantum computing was a consistent thread – an area I followed closely and championed quietly. I would brief C-suite leaders on quantum breakthroughs, explore potential use cases for our clients, and push internal teams to consider post-quantum security. Quantum remained a passion project of mine, even as I managed broader technology and cyber portfolios.... --- ### How Quantum Could Break Through Amdahl’s Law and Computing’s Limits > A fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get... - Published: 2025-03-15 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-amdahls-law/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Amdahl’s Law teaches us a humbling lesson about the limits of classical computing: there is always a portion that resists parallel speedup, chaining us to diminishing returns. We’ve coped by clever engineering – making that chain as short as possible – but not broken it. Quantum computing offers a bolt cutter for certain chains, freeing us from some of the constraints that have started to stall high-end computing. It fundamentally changes the rules of the game by leveraging physics in ways classical computers cannot. Understanding Amdahl’s Law: The Math of Parallel SpeedupThe Parallelism Bottleneck: Why More Cores Isn’t Always BetterAI and Other Demanding Workloads Under Amdahl’s ShadowPushing the Limits: Specialized Accelerators and Smarter AlgorithmsA Quantum Leap: How Quantum Computing Differs and Dodges Amdahl’s LawQuantum Computing: The Best Hope to Break the Ceiling? Conclusion: Embracing a Future Beyond Classical LimitsModern computing has achieved breathtaking performance gains through parallel processing, from multi-core CPUs to GPU farms crunching AI models. But no matter how many processors we throw at a problem, a fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get. Let's explore why classical computing faces bottlenecks even with massive parallelism. We’ll examine the implications for AI and other high-performance workloads, discuss workarounds like specialized accelerators and better algorithms, and make the case for quantum computing as the ultimate path to transcend these limits. Understanding Amdahl’s Law: The Math of Parallel Speedup Amdahl’s Law is a formula that quantifies the maximum possible improvement in overall performance when only part of a task can be parallelized. Gene Amdahl introduced this idea in 1967, painting a “bleak” picture for unlimited speed-ups: every program has a fraction that must run serially, and once you exceed the available parallel portion, adding more processors yields no further benefit. Mathematically, we can derive Amdahl’s Law as follows: Let T(1) be the execution time of a task on a single processor. Split this into two parts: T_s for the portion that is serial (cannot be parallelized) and T_p for the portion that is parallelizable. So T(1) = T_s + T_p. If we run the task on N processors (idealizing perfect parallelism for the parallel part), the serial part still takes T_s (since it can’t be divided), and the parallel part takes T_p/N (spread evenly across... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in South Korea > South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy... - Published: 2025-03-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-south-korea/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: South Korea Main South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy and increasing investments, Korea is making its mark through cutting-edge research at top universities, substantial government support for quantum computing and communications, and active participation from industry giants and startups alike. The country’s balanced focus – on quantum computing platforms, quantum-safe communications (QKD and PQC), and quantum sensing – reflects a holistic understanding of the quantum revolution’s impact. Technical milestones like multi-qubit photonic chips, large-scale QKD deployment , and novel PQC algorithms showcase Korea’s growing R&D prowess. At the same time, initiatives such as dedicated quantum grad schools and the training of thousands of specialists ensure that human capital will not be a bottleneck. Significantly, South Korea has embedded quantum technology into its broader economic and security policies – treating it as a critical technology for the future, much like semiconductors or AI. This means support for quantum is likely to be sustained across administrations. The new Quantum Promotion Act and the high-level coordination committee provide institutional continuity. Historical Overview of Quantum Research in South KoreaQuantum Computing in South KoreaGovernment-Backed Quantum Initiatives and StrategyAcademic Strength and Research ContributionsPrivate-Sector Quantum DevelopmentsQuantum Cryptography and Secure Communication FocusGeopolitical Position and Competitive OutlookConclusion and OutlookHistorical Overview of Quantum Research in South Korea South Korea’s engagement with quantum technology has evolved from niche academic research in the late 20th century to a coordinated national priority in the 21st. Early efforts in quantum optics and cryptography laid the groundwork, but major milestones began appearing in the 2010s. South Korea’s largest telecom operator, SK Telecom, launched a dedicated Quantum Tech Lab as early as 2011 and commercialized its first quantum key distribution (QKD) device in 2014. By 2019, SK Telecom—together with its Swiss partner ID Quantique—deployed quantum cryptography on a commercial 5G network over 330 km, introducing quantum-secured 5G service for the first time. These industry-led breakthroughs signaled the viability of quantum communications and spurred broader national interest. On the government side, initial support was modest until the late 2010s. Quantum technology was included in South Korea’s Digital New Deal initiative around 2020, which funded pilot QKD networks across public institutions. A turning point came in April 2021 with the announcement of the National Strategic Plan for Quantum Science and Technology, aiming to make Korea a leading quantum country by 2030. This plan dramatically scaled up R&D funding – government investment in quantum tech jumped six-fold from 2018 levels, reaching ~94 billion KRW (≒$75 M) annually by 2023. In 2022, quantum technology was further elevated as one of 12 National Strategic Technologies, recognized as critical for future industry and security. By mid-2023, South Korea enacted a landmark Quantum Science and Technology Promotion Act, establishing a legal framework to boost quantum R&D, industry, and workforce development. This flurry of activity – from early telecom experiments to national... --- ### D-Wave Claims Quantum Supremacy with Quantum Annealing > D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” - Published: 2025-03-13 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-quantum-advantage/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Canada D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” – using its quantum annealing technology on a practical problem. In a peer-reviewed study published in Science on March 12, 2025, D-Wave’s researchers report that their 5,000+ qubit Advantage2 prototype quantum annealer outperformed one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers (Oak Ridge National Lab’s Frontier system) in simulating the quantum dynamics of a complex magnetic material​. The task involved modeling programmable spin glass systems (a type of disordered magnetic material) relevant to materials science. According to D-Wave, their quantum machine found solutions in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer an estimated “nearly one million years” to match, a problem so intensive it would consume more power than the world’s annual energy supply if attempted classically​. D-Wave has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” – using its quantum annealing technology on a practical problem. In a peer-reviewed study published in Science on March 12, 2025, D-Wave’s researchers report that their 5,000+ qubit Advantage2 prototype quantum annealer outperformed one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers (Oak Ridge National Lab’s Frontier system) in simulating the quantum dynamics of a complex magnetic material​. The task involved modeling programmable spin glass systems (a type of disordered magnetic material) relevant to materials science. According to D-Wave, their quantum machine found solutions in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer an estimated “nearly one million years” to match, a problem so intensive it would consume more power than the world’s annual energy supply if attempted classically​. This dramatic speedup – solving in minutes what classical computing might never realistically solve – is being touted as the first-ever quantum advantage on a useful, real-world problem​, distinguishing it from earlier quantum supremacy demonstrations that used abstract math problems or random circuit sampling. D-Wave’s press release emphasizes the practical significance of the result. The simulation of spin glass materials has direct applications in materials discovery, electronics, and medical imaging, making it more than a mere computational stunt​. The company notes that understanding magnetic material behavior at the quantum level is crucial for developing new technologies, and these simulations delivered important material properties that classical methods couldn’t feasibly obtain​. The achievement was enabled by D-Wave’s Advantage2 annealing quantum computer prototype, which offers enhanced performance – including a faster “annealing” schedule, higher qubit connectivity, greater coherence, and an increased energy scale​. These hardware improvements allowed the team to push the annealer into a highly quantum-coherent regime (reducing the effects of noise and thermal fluctuations) and tackle larger, more complex instances... --- ### NIST Picks HQC as New Post-Quantum Encryption Candidate > Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - Published: 2025-03-11 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-hqc-pqc/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing​. What is HQC? Why did NIST select HQC? Implications for Cybersecurity and IndustryWhat Round 4 Means & What’s NextThe U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4 of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) standardization program​. HQC’s advancement is especially interesting because it is the only algorithm from NIST’s 4th round of evaluations to be chosen for standardization​. This move will add a 5th algorithm to NIST’s list of quantum-resistant tools, serving as a backup encryption method alongside the four algorithms already selected in earlier rounds​​. For a more technical analysis of the previously-selected 4 algorithms, see: Inside NIST’s First Post-Quantum Standards: A Technical Exploration of Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+. NIST officials highlighted that HQC is being designated as a “backup” encryption standard rather than a replacement for the primary algorithms finalized last year​. Dustin Moody, a NIST mathematician leading the PQC project, explained that as organizations migrate to post-quantum cryptography, it’s prudent to have an alternative based on different mathematics in case the main algorithm is ever threatened​. “We are announcing the selection of HQC because we want to have a backup standard that is based on a different math approach than ,” Moody said​. In practice, this means HQC will coexist with NIST’s primary encryption standard (known as ML-KEM, derived from the lattice-based CRYSTALS-Kyber algorithm) rather than displace it​​. The intent is to bolster confidence that even as quantum technology advances, there will be more than one line of defense protecting sensitive data. HQC’s selection is the result of NIST’s Round 4, an extra phase in the PQC competition dedicated to evaluating additional encryption algorithms for standardization. At the conclusion of the third round in 2022, NIST had already chosen... --- ### Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC) with Erasure Qubits > Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - Published: 2025-03-06 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/fault-tolerant-erasure-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing​. What Are Erasure Qubits and Why Do They Matter? How Erasure Qubits Improve Quantum Error CorrectionThe Proposed Fault-Tolerant Architecture (Using Floquet Codes)Impact on Quantum ComputingCybersecurity ImplicationsPotential Future DirectionsThe steady flow of interesting quantum computing announcements continues today, with an intriguing new paper. Researchers have unveiled a novel quantum computing architecture that uses “erasure qubits” to dramatically improve error correction, potentially cutting the cost of building reliable quantum computers. In a new study, Shouzhen Gu, Alex Retzker, and Aleksander Kubica propose a hardware-efficient way to make quantum bits that can signal when they fail, turning random errors into easier-to-handle erasures​. This approach addresses one of quantum computing’s biggest challenges – the huge overhead of error correction – by allowing the system to know exactly where an error occurred and correct it more efficiently​. The team’s fault-tolerant architecture, tailored for superconducting quantum circuits, shows that with a bit more complexity in each qubit, one can achieve significantly better error protection than standard methods​. The result is a blueprint for quantum processors that could require far fewer qubits to do the same reliable computations, bringing practical quantum machines closer to reality​. What Are Erasure Qubits and Why Do They Matter? In conventional quantum bits (qubits), errors like bit-flips or phase-flips strike without warning – the qubit’s state might change silently, and detecting these errors requires intricate protocols. An erasure qubit is different. It’s engineered so that its most likely failure mode is a detectable erasure – essentially the qubit disappears or moves to a known “lost” state that raises a red flag. In other words, when an erasure qubit suffers an error, you know it happened and which qubit was hit, as opposed to mysterious flips that go unnoticed​. This built-in error detection is powerful because it converts unpredictable errors into predictable, locatable... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in the Middle East > Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - Published: 2025-03-06 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-middle-east/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Middle East Main Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI. The Middle East is determined not to miss out on the quantum revolution, and that determination is reshaping the tech narrative of this region. What’s behind this quantum push in the Middle East? Two key factors stand out: wealth from natural resources and a need to diversify economies, coupled with relative political stability. Gulf nations have long relied on oil and gas – and now they’re investing those petrodollars into technology to pivot away from hydrocarbon-dependent GDP. This access to capital, plus stable governments that can plan for the long term, forms the backbone of their quantum ambitions. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qatar are prime examples: each has strategic national visions (like Saudi’s Vision 2030 and the UAE’s Centennial 2071 plan) that highlight innovation and knowledge economies, giving quantum tech a supportive policy environment. Introduction: Returning to an Innovative Middle EastTwo Different Worlds in the Middle EastMiddle East Driving Factors for Quantum AdoptionThe UAE’s Quantum Computing EffortsSaudi Arabia’s Quantum Ambitions (“The Kingdom’s” Role)Qatar’s Quantum InvolvementTurkey’s Quantum Computing StrategyQuantum Startup Ecosystem: Nascent but GrowingConclusion: A Personal Outlook on the Quantum Middle EastIntroduction: Returning to an Innovative Middle East It’s been about 1. 5 years since I returned to the Middle East – a region I first worked in back in 2006-2008. Coming back after over a decade, I’m struck by how the tech landscape has transformed. The Middle East is now, in my view, one of the most exciting regions for emerging technologies. Industry leaders seem to agree – for instance, IonQ’s CEO Peter Chapman noted that while regional investment in quantum and AI started smaller than in the West, it’s rapidly growing with a focused approach on high-impact sectors like energy, finance, and life sciences. This concentrated effort means the GCC countries are aiming to leapfrog into leadership positions in areas like artificial intelligence and quantum computing. Or even the combination of the two - Quantum AI. Indeed, one of the most striking observations I had since returning to the Middle East is that discussions around Quantum AI extend beyond academia into active commercial discussions. Companies here see Quantum AI as a potential long-term strategic investment—a pathway to leapfrogging into global tech leadership—even though tangible benefits might still be years away. Elsewhere, it’s often dismissed as an academic curiosity due to uncertain short-term returns. As a techno-optimist, this forward-thinking approach leaves me confident that the region is positioning itself for future success. My own career journey mirrors this regional shift. I went from working at a Big 4 consultancy to leading specialized quantum technology research and consulting teams at Applied Quantum and Secure Quantum.... --- ### The Race Toward FTQC: Ocelot, Majorana, Willow, Heron, Zuchongzhi > Race to fault-tolerant quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses... - Published: 2025-03-05 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fault-tolerant-quantum-race/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses—Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft, Google, IBM, and Zuchongzhi—all in the last 4 months. Are these just hype-fueled announcements, or do they mark real progress toward useful, large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computing—and perhaps signal an accelerated timeline for “Q-Day”? Personally, I'm bullish about these announcements. Each of these reveals a different and interesting strategy for tackling the field’s biggest challenge: quantum error correction. The combined innovation pushes the file forward in a big way. But let's dig into some details. IntroductionBreakdown of Each AnnouncementAWS Ocelot: Bosonic Cat Qubits and Built-In Error CorrectionMicrosoft’s Majorana 1: Topological Qubits and the Quest for Stable QubitsGoogle Willow: A 105-Qubit Transmon Processor Achieving Error-Correction ThresholdsIBM Heron R2: Tunable-Coupler Architecture and Enhanced Quantum VolumeZuchongzhi 3. 0: China’s Breakthrough in Superconducting Quantum HardwareExpanded Technical ComparisonQubit Type and ArchitectureAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Qubit Types and ArchitecturesCoherence Times (T1 and T2)AWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Coherence TimesError Rates and Error Correction TechniquesAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Error Rates and Error Correction TechniquesBenchmarking and Performance MetricsQuantum VolumeIBM Heron R2Google Willow and USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0AWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1CLOPS (Circuit Layer Operations Per Second)IBM Heron R2Google WillowUSTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0AWS Ocelot and Microsoft Majorana-1Quantum Advantage / Computational Task BenchmarksGoogle WillowUSTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0IBM Heron R2AWS Ocelot and Microsoft Majorana-1Other BenchmarksCircuit fidelity at scaleSummary of Benchmarking and Performance MetricsGate Fidelity and SpeedAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Relevant InnovationsSummary of Gate Fidelity and SpeedScalability and IntegrationAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Scalability and IntegrationComputational Capabilities and Use CasesAWS OcelotMicrosoft Majorana-1Google WillowIBM Heron R2USTC Zuchongzhi 3. 0Summary of Computational Capabilities and Use CasesImplications for Q-DayPredictions and Future OutlookTimeline to Quantum AdvantagePractical error correctionScale of devicesFault tolerance by the early 2030sConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses—Zuchongzhi, Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft, Google, and IBM—all in the last 4 months.  Are these just hype-fueled announcements, or do they mark real progress toward useful, large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computing—and perhaps signal an accelerated timeline for “Q-Day”? Personally, I'm bullish about these announcements. Each of these reveals a different and interesting strategy for tackling the field’s biggest challenge: quantum error correction. The combined innovation pushes the... --- ### Zuchongzhi 3.0 Quantum Chip: Technical Analysis and Implications > China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor - Published: 2025-03-04 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-3-0-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor with 105 qubits, marking a major leap in quantum computing performance. Announced in March 2025 by a University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) team led by Pan Jianwei, Zhu Xiaobo, and Peng Chengzhi, this prototype boasts unprecedented processing speed – reportedly quadrillion ($10^15$) times faster than today’s best supercomputer and about one million times faster than Google’s latest quantum chip results announced just a few months ago. Technical Advancements of Zuchongzhi 3. 0Architecture and Qubit DesignQubit Count and Fidelity ImprovementsUnique FeaturesPerformance Claims and BenchmarkingQuantum Advantage DemonstrationValidity of Claims and Benchmark MethodsGeopolitical Implications and Tech Race DynamicsNational Strategies and InvestmentTechno-Strategic ImpactComparison with Other Leading Quantum ProcessorsMathematical and Scientific InsightsRandom Circuit Sampling ComplexityError Rates and Quantum Error CorrectionEntanglement and 2D ConnectivityCybersecurity ImplicationsOutlookChina’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3. 0, a new superconducting quantum processor with 105 qubits, marking a major leap in quantum computing performance. Announced in March 2025 by a University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) team led by Pan Jianwei, Zhu Xiaobo, and Peng Chengzhi, this prototype claims to have achieved unprecedented processing speed – reportedly quadrillion (1015) times faster than today’s best supercomputer and about one million times faster than Google’s latest quantum chip results announced just a few months ago. More on this benchmark later. Let's dig into the announcement and the accompanying paper: Establishing a New Benchmark in Quantum Computational Advantage with 105-qubit Zuchongzhi 3. 0 Processor. Technical Advancements of Zuchongzhi 3. 0 Architecture and Qubit Design Zuchongzhi 3. 0 is a 105-qubit superconducting processor fabricated with a two-dimensional grid (rectangular lattice) architecture. The qubits are coupled via a dense network of 182 tunable couplers, enabling flexible two-qubit interactions across the chip. This 2D layout (with an average connectivity of ~3. 5 neighboring qubits per qubit) maximizes entanglement opportunities while mitigating signal cross-talk. The chip adopts a “flip-chip” integration technique, where two chips are bonded face-to-face, achieving high-density interconnects with minimal signal loss. This innovation, along with a sapphire substrate and improved circuit materials (tantalum-aluminum), significantly reduces electromagnetic noise and enhances thermal stability. The result is an extended qubit coherence: Zuchongzhi 3. 0’s qubits have an average energy-relaxation (T₁) time of ~72 µs (and dephasing T₂ ~58... --- ### Quantum Geopolitics: The Global Race for Quantum Computing > Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications... - Published: 2025-03-01 - Modified: 2025-03-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-geopolitics/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Geopolitics Quantum computing has emerged as a new frontier of great-power competition in the 21st century​. Nations around the world view advanced quantum technologies as strategic assets—keys to future economic prowess, military strength, and technological sovereignty. Governments have already poured over $40 billion into quantum research and development globally​, launching national initiatives and international collaborations to secure a lead in this critical domain. The Strategic Importance of Quantum Computing in GeopoliticsCryptography and National SecurityEconomic Competitiveness and Technological LeadershipMilitary and Defense ApplicationsScientific Prestige and Technological SovereigntyUnited States: A Private-Sector-Driven ApproachChina: A State-Funded Quantum LeapEuropean Union: Collaborative Efforts and Regulatory VisionUnited Kingdom: Early Investment and Ongoing LeadershipIndia: Emerging Aspirant in Quantum TechnologyRussia: Strategic Interest Amid ChallengesTechnological Sovereignty in Quantum ComputingGeopolitical Risks of a Quantum Computing Gap (“Q-Day” Ahead)Intelligence and National Security UpheavalStrategic Instability and Arms Race DynamicsErosion of Privacy, Commerce, and Public TrustTechnological Hegemony and DependencyGlobal Tensions and Alliances ShiftsRegulation, Collaboration, and Security in the Quantum EraExport Controls and Protective RegulationsCybersecurity Standards – Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)International Collaboration and TreatiesNational Security MeasuresEthical and Equity ConsiderationsBalancing Collaboration with CompetitionConclusionQuantum computing has emerged as a new frontier of great-power competition in the 21st century​. Nations around the world view advanced quantum technologies as strategic assets—keys to future economic prowess, military strength, and technological sovereignty. Governments have already poured over $40 billion into quantum research and development globally​, launching national initiatives and international collaborations to secure a lead in this critical domain. In this article I will try to summarize, at a very high-level, the approaches of all key jurisdictions with an emphasis on the United States, China, and the European Union, as well as other important players like the United Kingdom, India, and Russia. The Strategic Importance of Quantum Computing in Geopolitics Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications. Its strategic importance can be understood in several key areas. Cryptography and National Security Quantum computers at scale could break today’s encryption standards, endangering the security of communications and data worldwide. Modern digital infrastructure—from military communications to banking and e-commerce—relies on encryption that quantum algorithms (like Shor’s) might eventually crack. The prospect of a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (“CRQC”) attaining... --- ### AWS Announces Ocelot Chip for Ultra-Reliable Qubits > Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone... - Published: 2025-02-28 - Modified: 2025-03-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/aws-ocelot-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone in the company’s quantum ambitions. Announced on February 27, 2025, Ocelot is a prototype processor designed from the ground up to tackle quantum error correction in a more resource-efficient way. AWS claims the new chip can reduce the overhead (and thus cost) of error correction by up to 90% compared to current methods. Developed at the AWS Center for Quantum Computing (on Caltech’s campus), Ocelot is described as a breakthrough toward building fault-tolerant quantum computers – machines that could one day solve problems “beyond the reach” of today’s classical supercomputers. This announcement positions AWS alongside other tech giants in the race for quantum computing, but with a distinct focus on error-corrected quantum hardware from the outset. Technical Breakdown of OcelotQubit TechnologyError Suppression and QEC ArchitectureComparison with Other Quantum ChipsAWS’s Broader Quantum StrategyIndustry Comparisons and Competitive LandscapeCryptographic and Security ImplicationsFuture Outlook and ChallengesAmazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone in the company’s quantum ambitions. Announced on February 27, 2025, Ocelot is a prototype processor designed from the ground up to tackle quantum error correction in a more resource-efficient way. AWS claims the new chip can reduce the overhead (and thus cost) of error correction by up to 90% compared to current methods. Developed at the AWS Center for Quantum Computing (on Caltech’s campus), Ocelot is described as a breakthrough toward building fault-tolerant quantum computers – machines that could one day solve problems “beyond the reach” of today’s classical supercomputers. This announcement positions AWS alongside other tech giants in the race for quantum computing, but with a distinct focus on error-corrected quantum hardware from the outset. AWS’s Director of Quantum Hardware, Oskar Painter, emphasized that with recent advances, “it is no longer a matter of if, but when” practical quantum computers arrive, calling Ocelot “an important step on that journey. ” He noted that chips built on Ocelot’s architecture could be produced at roughly one-fifth the cost of current approaches, potentially accelerating AWS’s timeline to a practical quantum computer by up to five years. Ocelot’s debut is especially significant given AWS’s broader quantum computing strategy to date. Until now, AWS’s public quantum efforts have centered on Amazon Braket, a cloud service launched in 2019 that lets users experiment with quantum algorithms on third-party quantum hardware. Through Braket, researchers can access a range of quantum technologies (from superconducting qubits to ion traps and photonic devices) provided by AWS partners. In other words, AWS has so far acted as... --- ### AI and Quantum Sensing: A Perfect Synergy > AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest... - Published: 2025-02-28 - Modified: 2025-03-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ai-quantum-sensing/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest scales; AI provides the means to interpret and act on that data in real time. This synergy is already evident in cutting-edge projects – from AI algorithms cleaning up quantum microscope images to autonomous navigation systems using quantum sensors plus AI to chart their course . As both technologies mature, their convergence will enable a new class of applications that neither could achieve alone. The marriage of artificial intelligence and quantum sensing is a natural synergy – each amplifies the other’s strengths. Quantum sensors can flood us with high-precision data about the world, but making sense of that data isn’t trivial. The signals are often high-dimensional, noisy, and complex, reflecting the subtlety of quantum-level phenomena. This is where AI steps in. Advanced algorithms (machine learning, neural networks, deep analytics) excel at finding patterns in vast data and extracting meaningful information. By pairing AI with quantum sensing, we ensure that we don’t just collect quantum data – we understand it and act on it. In fact, AI is becoming essential for handling quantum sensor outputs. While a quantum magnetometer or gravimeter might detect tiny fluctuations, interpreting what those fluctuations mean (a hidden tumor? a submarine? a new physics signal? ) can be like finding a needle in a haystack. AI can be trained to recognize the subtle fingerprints of true signals amid background noise. Below are several ways AI supercharges quantum sensing, along with the exciting prospects this synergy unlocks: Intelligent Noise Reduction Quantum sensors are so sensitive that they pick up everything – including unwanted environmental noise (stray magnetic fields, vibrations, temperature drifts). Traditionally, we had to build elaborate shielding or operate in isolated labs to reduce interference. AI offers a smarter solution: noise mitigation algorithms can learn the difference between a sensor’s target signal and noise, and filter the noise out in real time. For example, AI models have been used to clean up MRI images enhanced by quantum sensors, removing artifacts that would normally require a shielded room. SandboxAQ (an Alphabet spinoff) reports using AI to distinguish the useful magnetic signals of the human heart from background electromagnetic noise, instead of relying solely on cumbersome shielding. By digitally “hushing” the noise, we... --- ### Quantum Use Cases in Telecom > Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we operate networks - Published: 2025-02-27 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-telecom/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Telecommunications Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we secure and operate networks, enabling levels of performance and protection previously unattainable​. At the same time, it forces a reckoning with the vulnerabilities of our current systems. The journey to fully realize quantum-enhanced telecom will involve overcoming technical challenges and managing risks, but the destination – a world with fundamentally secure, high-capacity communications and perhaps even a quantum internet spanning continents – is one of extraordinary promise. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Cryptography & Secure CommunicationsQuantum Networking & the Quantum InternetOptimization of Telecom InfrastructureError Correction & Signal ProcessingSpectrum Allocation & RF Signal OptimizationPost-Quantum CryptographyThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is an emerging technology that leverages quantum physics to process information in profoundly new ways. Unlike classical bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum bits (qubits) can exist in superpositions of states, allowing quantum algorithms to evaluate many possibilities simultaneously​. This can translate into exponential speed-ups for certain computations, providing vast new computational power. Telecommunications networks – increasingly complex with the advent of 5G and soon 6G – stand to benefit greatly from this power. Today’s mobile networks already run massively distributed, compute-intensive applications from the core cloud to the edge​. Meeting future network demands will require significant advances in computing and AI; quantum computers are expected to surpass classical computers for specific problem types relevant to telecom​. In essence, quantum computing could become a key tool to plan, control, and optimize communication networks beyond what current technology allows. At the same time, quantum computing poses an unprecedented security challenge. Powerful quantum machines will be capable of cracking the encryption algorithms that currently protect telecom data and transactions in a feasible timeframe​. Data that would take classical supercomputers trillions of years to decrypt might take a large quantum computer mere months​. This looming capability has raised alarms in the telecom industry, which handles mountains of sensitive information. As discussed later, telecom providers are racing to adopt quantum-safe encryption to defend against this threat. In short, quantum computing matters for telecommunications both as a transformative opportunity and as a disruptive threat​. The sections below explore how quantum technologies are already impacting global telecommunications and what lies on the horizon. Current Developments Research... --- ### Microsoft’s Majorana-Based Quantum Chip - Beyond the Hype > In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design... - Published: 2025-02-23 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana-1-hype/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design leveraging exotic Majorana quasiparticles. This chip uses a new material called a “topoconductor” (a specially engineered topological superconductor) made from indium arsenide and aluminum, which can host and control Majorana zero modes (MZMs) to serve as qubits. Microsoft’s announcement framed this as a paradigm shift akin to inventing the “transistor for the quantum age,” claiming that the Majorana 1 chip’s “Topological Core” could eventually scale to one million qubits on a single, palm-sized chip. The Majorana 1 Announcement and ContextTechnical Achievements: Creating and Measuring a Topological QubitBreakthrough or Preliminary Step? Implications for Microsoft’s Quantum StrategyCredibility of the Research and the 2018 RetractionHype vs Reality: Are the Claims Overblown? Expert and Community PerspectivesThe Majorana 1 Announcement and Context Seattle, WA, USA (Feb 2025) – Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design leveraging exotic Majorana quasiparticles. This chip uses a new material called a “topoconductor” (a specially engineered topological superconductor) made from indium arsenide and aluminum, which can host and control Majorana zero modes (MZMs) to serve as qubits. For more about the Majorana quantum computing paradigm, see: Quantum Computing Paradigms and Architectures: Majorana Qubits 101. Microsoft’s announcement framed this as a paradigm shift akin to inventing the “transistor for the quantum age,” claiming that the Majorana 1 chip’s “Topological Core” could eventually scale to one million qubits on a single, palm-sized chip. The company boldly stated that this approach will enable quantum computers capable of solving impactful, industrial-scale problems “in years, not decades,” emphasizing a clear path toward a fault-tolerant machine with unprecedented scale. The reveal coincided with a paper in Nature by Microsoft’s Azure Quantum researchers (160+ authors) describing the device’s properties, as well as a roadmap preprint outlining how they plan to scale this technology into a fully functional topological quantum computer. Many scientists, rather than following the media hype, dug into the accompanying Nature paper and came away with a much different impression. The peer-reviewed paper describes a foundational experiment or “test harness” for Majorana zero modes, rather than a demonstrable quantum computing chip. In other words, the paper outlines an experimental device that might one day enable Majorana-based qubits, not a functioning topological quantum processor achieved today. This gap between... --- ### Quantum Use Cases in Healthcare & Medical Research > Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point... - Published: 2025-01-16 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-healthcare/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Healthcare & Medical Research Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point, we can see glimmers of its future impact: prototype quantum algorithms already accelerating drug discovery, early collaborations bringing quantum hardware into hospital research labs, and quantum-inspired methods optimizing healthcare operations in ways that improve patient care. As the technology evolves from today’s nascent systems to tomorrow’s fault-tolerant quantum computers, the scale of disruption and advancement will only grow. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesMedical Imaging & DiagnosticsHospital & Healthcare Systems OptimizationPersonalized Treatment PlansMedical Robotics & Surgical PlanningEpidemiology & Public Health --- ### Russia Unveils First 50-Qubit Quantum Computer Prototype > Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering... - Published: 2024-12-30 - Modified: 2025-03-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/russia-50-qubit-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Russia Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing​. Moscow, Russia (Dec 2024) – Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap in its national quantum program​. Researchers at Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) and the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) developed the 50-qubit device using neutral rubidium atoms as quantum bits​. The prototype was successfully tested on December 19, 2024, just in time to meet a government-backed 2020 roadmap goal of building a 50-qubit system by end of 2024​. This accomplishment positions Russia among a select group of nations with quantum processors at the 50-qubit scale, a benchmark long pursued in the global race for quantum computing capabilities​. According to the MSU Quantum Technologies Center, the new quantum computer operates by trapping individual rubidium atoms with “optical tweezers” – tightly focused laser beams that hold and manipulate the atoms in place​. The apparatus spans a large optical table packed with a laser array for cooling and controlling atomic states and an ultra-high vacuum chamber to isolate the atoms from environmental interference​. In the prototype’s current setup, 50 single atoms are arranged in an ordered array, forming a quantum register on which single-qubit operations can be performed​. “Neutral atoms in optical tweezers are a good system in terms of scaling prospects. We more or less understand how to get from systems of tens of qubits to hundreds and even thousands,” said Stanislav Straupe, head of the quantum computing sector at MSU, underscoring the design’s potential for expansion​. The project is part of Russia’s national Quantum Computing Roadmap coordinated by the state corporation Rosatom and backed by roughly $790 million in government funding​. It follows on the heels of a 20-qubit ion-trap quantum computer demonstrated in early 2024, which itself built on a 16-qubit system showcased to President Vladimir Putin in... --- ### China’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives > For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope... - Published: 2024-12-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: China Main For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope of what’s possible. In an optimistic view, this competition can accelerate discoveries that benefit all humankind – better medicines from quantum simulations, safer communications, more precise navigation and timing for everyone. Introduction: A Personal Perspective on China’s Quantum PushHistorical Context: From Early Efforts to National PriorityQuantum Computing: China’s Current AdvancementsQuantum Communications and Cryptography: Unhackable Networks at ScaleSpace: The Micius Satellite and Global QKD LinksGround: Terrestrial Quantum Fiber NetworksQuantum Cryptography and BeyondQuantum Sensing: Developing the Next-Generation SensorsGeopolitical Implications: The Quantum Great GameConclusion and Outlook: The Road Ahead for China’s Quantum QuestIntroduction: A Personal Perspective on China’s Quantum Push I still remember the hum of the laboratory in Hefei on humid summer nights. I spent a number of years living and working in China, immersed in advanced and emerging technologies. Including a slew of quantum technologies. As I was researching the quantum threat, in my, at the time cybersecurity-focused role, I got to talk with brilliant Chinese scientists in Anhui’s capital – a city now nicknamed “Quantum Avenue” for its cluster of quantum startups. I witnessed firsthand the deep talent pool and relentless commitment of China’s quantum researchers. Graduate students would work past midnight, aligning lasers for quantum optics experiments or tweaking code for quantum algorithms. The atmosphere was electric with ambition; many believed they were pioneers of a coming technological revolution. Those experiences left an indelible impression. Even after leaving the region, I’ve stayed in touch with former colleagues in China. Through late-night messages and research updates, I’ve tracked China’s astounding progress in quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. What follows is both a personal account and an online analysis of China’s quantum technology initiatives – blending my on-the-ground observations with documented facts. Historical Context: From Early Efforts to National Priority China’s serious foray into quantum research began in the late 20th century and accelerated rapidly in the 21st. In the 1980s and 1990s, a few visionary scientists, such as Prof. Guo Guangcan, started laying groundwork in quantum information science. By 2001,... --- ### Quantum Technology Initiatives in Singapore and ASEAN > ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s... - Published: 2024-12-27 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-singapore-asean/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: ASEAN Main ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s – the National Research Foundation began funding quantum research as early as 2002, and by 2007 the government helped establish the Centre for Quantum Technologies (CQT) at the National University of Singapore. CQT was a milestone for the region, bringing together physicists, computer scientists, and engineers to explore quantum physics and build prototype quantum devices. Over the subsequent decade, CQT’s researchers published around 2,000 scientific papers and trained more than 60 PhD students, seeding a generation of quantum scientists in Southeast Asia. This early start positioned Singapore as the region’s quantum research hub. Other ASEAN members followed in the 2010s: research groups and academic programs in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia began exploring quantum information science, albeit on a smaller scale. Historical Context of Quantum Research in ASEANQuantum Computing Advancements in ASEANGovernment Strategies and National InitiativesLeading Research Institutions and ProgramsPrivate-Sector Developments and Industry PartnershipsQuantum Communications and Cryptography in ASEANQuantum Sensing and Metrology Developments in ASEANASEAN’s Global Position in Quantum TechnologySingapore’s Role as ASEAN’s Quantum Hub and the Regional EcosystemThe Emerging Quantum Ecosystem Across Southeast AsiaConclusion and Forward OutlookHistorical Context of Quantum Research in ASEAN ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s – the National Research Foundation began funding quantum research as early as 2002, and by 2007 the government helped establish the Centre for Quantum Technologies (CQT) at the National University of Singapore. CQT was a milestone for the region, bringing together physicists, computer scientists, and engineers to explore quantum physics and build prototype quantum devices. Over the subsequent decade, CQT’s researchers published around 2,000 scientific papers and trained more than 60 PhD students, seeding a generation of quantum scientists in Southeast Asia. This early start positioned Singapore as the region’s quantum research hub. Other ASEAN members followed in the 2010s: research groups and academic programs in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia began exploring quantum information science, albeit on a smaller scale. For example, Malaysian researchers formed the Malaysia Quantum Information Initiative (MyQI) community to raise awareness and collaborate nationally, while in Thailand a Quantum Technology Roadmap 2020–2029 was drawn up to guide R&D in quantum computing, communications, and sensing. By the early 2020s, these foundational efforts coalesced into national initiatives, signaling ASEAN’s intent to catch the “second quantum revolution. ” In 2022, Indonesia’s government created a dedicated Research Center for Quantum Physics under its National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), aiming to build local expertise in fundamental quantum science and future technologies. And in 2024, Malaysia launched its... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Russia > Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI... - Published: 2024-12-26 - Modified: 2025-03-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-russia/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Russia Main Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI. The Middle East is determined not to miss out on the quantum revolution, and that determination is reshaping the tech narrative of this region. What’s behind this quantum push in the Middle East? Two key factors stand out: wealth from natural resources and a need to diversify economies, coupled with relative political stability. Gulf nations have long relied on oil and gas – and now they’re investing those petrodollars into technology to pivot away from hydrocarbon-dependent GDP. This access to capital, plus stable governments that can plan for the long term, forms the backbone of their quantum ambitions. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qatar are prime examples: each has strategic national visions (like Saudi’s Vision 2030 and the UAE’s Centennial 2071 plan) that highlight innovation and knowledge economies, giving quantum tech a supportive policy environment. Historical Context of Russia’s Quantum ResearchQuantum Computing: Current State and AdvancementsGovernment Initiatives and National Quantum ProgramLeading Research Institutions and CollaboratorsPrivate Sector and Startup DevelopmentsQuantum Communications and CryptographyQuantum Key Distribution NetworksQuantum Cryptography and Security EffortsQuantum Sensing and Metrology DevelopmentsRussia’s Global Position in Quantum TechnologyOutlookHistorical Context of Russia’s Quantum Research Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics and early quantum experiments. This legacy endures in the modern era – Russian experts often note that the “Soviet school of quantum physics was one of the best in the world,” providing a deep talent pool for today’s initiatives. In the 2010s, Russia began explicitly organizing its quantum research efforts. A key milestone was the establishment of the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) in 2010 at the Skolkovo innovation hub as a private research institution focused on fundamental and applied quantum physics. RQC quickly garnered support, securing over 2 billion rubles (~€30 million) in funding from competitive grants and private investors like Gazprombank. This signaled a public-private interest in keeping pace with the “second quantum revolution. ” Soon after, regional centers emerged (e. g. a quantum center in Kazan in 2014) and Russian universities expanded quantum research programs. By the late 2010s, the government elevated quantum technology as a strategic priority. Quantum tech was included among the “strategically important cross-cutting directions” of national programs such as the National Technology Initiative (NTI) and the Digital Economy National Program. In 2017–2018, two specialized NTI centers were created: the Quantum Technology Center at Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) and an NTI Center for Quantum Communications at the National University of Science and Technology MISiS. Each received roughly 2 billion rubles (~€30 million) over five years from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education and the Russian Venture Company, aimed at building... --- ### Google Announces Willow Quantum Chip > Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing... - Published: 2024-12-11 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-willow-quantum-chip/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing. The 105-qubit Willow chip demonstrates two breakthroughs that have long eluded researchers: it dramatically reduces error rates as qubit count scales up, and it completed a computational task in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer longer than the age of the universe. These achievements suggest Google’s quantum hardware is edging closer to the threshold of useful quantum advantage, paving the way for large-scale systems that could outperform classical computers on real-world problems. Pushing Quantum Performance to New HeightsUnder the Hood of Willow’s DesignGoogle vs. IBM, and the Quantum CompetitionScaling Up: Challenges on the Road to Quantum UtilityWhy Willow Matters: Toward Quantum-Powered Industry and ScienceSanta Barbara, CA, USA (Dec 2024) – Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing. The 105-qubit Willow chip demonstrates two breakthroughs that have long eluded researchers: it dramatically reduces error rates as qubit count scales up, and it completed a computational task in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer longer than the age of the universe. These achievements suggest Google’s quantum hardware is edging closer to the threshold of useful quantum advantage, paving the way for large-scale systems that could outperform classical computers on real-world problems. Pushing Quantum Performance to New Heights Google’s Quantum AI team built Willow as the successor to its 2019 Sycamore chip, roughly doubling the qubit count from 53 to 105 while vastly improving qubit quality. Crucially, Willow’s design isn’t just about adding more qubits – it’s about better qubits. In quantum computing, more qubits mean nothing if they’re too error-prone. Willow tackles this with engineering refinements that boost qubit coherence times to ~100 microseconds, about 5× longer than Sycamore’s 20 μs. That stability, combined with an average qubit connectivity of 3. 47 in a 2D grid, gives Willow “best-in-class” performance on holistic benchmarks like quantum error correction and random circuit sampling. In a standard benchmark test known as Random Circuit Sampling (RCS), Willow proved its mettle. It churned through a complex random circuit in under five minutes – an instance so computationally hard that today’s fastest classical supercomputer would need an estimated 10 septillion ($$10^{25}$$) years to do the same. This isn’t just a parlor trick; it’s a strong indicator that... --- ### Quantum Computing Benchmarks: RCS, QV, AQ, and More > Researchers have developed specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance... - Published: 2024-11-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-benchmarks/ - Categories: Quantum Computing As quantum computing hardware rapidly improves, simple metrics like qubit count are no longer sufficient to gauge a system’s true capability. Unlike classical computers where transistor counts roughly correlate with performance, quantum bits (qubits) can be error-prone and short-lived, so a few high-fidelity qubits can be more valuable than many noisy ones. This has led researchers to develop specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance – from the ability to perform classically intractable tasks to the effective computational power and reliability of a device. IntroductionRandom Circuit Sampling (RCS) and Quantum SupremacyWhat does RCS measure and why is it important? Strengths and weaknessesQuantum Volume (QV)Mathematical framework and methodologyWhat does QV measure and why is it important? Strengths and use casesWeaknesses and criticismsAlgorithmic Qubits (AQ)What #AQ measuresMethodology and mathematical basisStrengths and ideal use casesWeaknesses and controversyOther Benchmarking MethodologiesRandomized Benchmarking (RB) – Gate Error RatesCross-Entropy (XEB) vs. Other Fidelity BenchmarksThroughput and Speed: CLOPS and rQOPSCLOPS (Circuit Layer Operations Per Second)rQOPS (Reliable Quantum Operations Per Second)Volumetric & Application-Specific BenchmarksConclusionIntroduction As quantum computing hardware rapidly improves, simple metrics like qubit count are no longer sufficient to gauge a system’s true capability. Unlike classical computers where transistor counts roughly correlate with performance, quantum bits (qubits) can be error-prone and short-lived, so a few high-fidelity qubits can be more valuable than many noisy ones. This has led researchers to develop specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance – from the ability to perform classically intractable tasks to the effective computational power and reliability of a device. IBM, for example, categorizes quantum performance along three dimensions: Scale (number of qubits), Quality (measured by Quantum Volume), and Speed (measured by CLOPS, circuit layer operations per second). These metrics, provide a more holistic yardstick for progress than raw qubit counts. The industry has developed a number of quantum benchmarks. Let's look at the few leading ones. Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) and Quantum Supremacy One of the most headline-grabbing benchmarks in quantum computing is Random Circuit Sampling (RCS), which underpins demonstrations of quantum supremacy (or “quantum advantage”). RCS involves running a quantum computer on a suite of random circuits and checking how well the output distribution matches what quantum mechanics predicts. The idea was first formalized by Boixo et al. (2018) as a way to “Characterize quantum supremacy in near-term devices”. In... --- ### Adiabatic Quantum (AQC) and Cyber (2024 Update) > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem... - Published: 2024-11-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-annealing-cyber/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing - Tags: popular Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem. Instead of discrete gate operations, AQC involves slowly evolving a quantum system’s Hamiltonian such that it remains in its lowest-energy (ground) state, effectively “computing” the solution as the system’s final state​. AQC and its practical subset known as quantum annealing are particularly geared toward solving optimization problems by finding minima of cost functions. IntroductionIn-Depth Explanation of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)Comparison with Gate-Based and Universal Quantum ComputingFundamental Differences in ApproachUniversalityAdvantages of AQCDisadvantages of AQCHow AQC aligns or diverges from universal quantum computationQuantum Annealing vs. Universal Adiabatic Quantum ComputingQuantum Annealing (QA)Universal AQCKey DifferencesQuantum Annealing in practice vs theoryCybersecurity Impact of Adiabatic Quantum ComputingHow AQC Could Break CryptographyBreaking Public-Key Encryption (RSA, ECC)Discrete Log (ECC and Diffie-Hellman)Symmetric Cryptography and HashesLattice-Based and Post-Quantum CryptographyHash-based cryptography and othersSummaryOther cryptographic impactsBottom line for cryptographyHow AQC Could Enhance CybersecurityQuantum-Enhanced Security ProtocolsOptimization for Secure Network DesignQuantum-Assisted Threat DetectionCryptanalysis for GoodQuantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Quantum-safe commsPost-Quantum Cryptography Transition SupportSummaryCurrent Developments in Adiabatic Quantum ComputingAcademic Research on Universal AQCQuantum Speedup ControversyHardware Research – Toward Universal AQCCommercial and Industry ProgressGovernment use and interestUniversal AQC in AcademiaSoftware and AlgorithmsQuantum Annealing and AI/MLStandardization and BenchmarksFeasibility and Timeline for Cryptographic RelevanceCurrent StateComparative Development SpeedBarriers to AQC’s cryptographic applicationTimeline EstimatesDefensive Strategies Against AQC-Related ThreatsConclusionKey takeaways for cybersecurity professionalsIntroduction Quantum computing promises to solve certain classes of problems that are intractable for classical computers by exploiting quantum-mechanical phenomena like superposition, entanglement, and tunneling. There are multiple models of quantum computation, with the gate-based (circuit) model being the most widely known. Gate-based quantum computers apply sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits) analogous to how classical computers use Boolean gates on bits​. This “universal” gate model can perform any computation a classical computer can (and more efficiently for specific problems like factoring via D-Wave Systems) already boast thousands of qubits dedicated to AQC, far surpassing the qubit counts of current gate-model machines – albeit with significant differences in capability​. Second, AQC is theoretically powerful: it has been proven that under ideal conditions, the adiabatic model is polynomially equivalent to the gate model of quantum computing (meaning any problem solvable by one can be solved by the other with... --- ### Quantum Technology Initiatives in Europe and EU > Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor... - Published: 2024-11-20 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-europe-eu/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Europe Main Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor encompassing the EU and its member states. The historical commitment to quantum science is now manifesting in tangible outputs: prototype quantum computers in laboratories and supercomputing centers, quantum-secure communication testbeds linking cities, and quantum sensors poised to revolutionize measurements from under the Earth to outer space. The European Union’s flagship program and national quantum strategies in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and elsewhere have created a momentum that engages both prestigious research institutions (ETH Zurich, CNRS, Max Planck Society, etc.) and a growing quantum startup sector (Pasqal, IQM, Atos, and many more). IntroductionQuantum Computing Initiatives and AdvancementsPan-European Programs: The Quantum Flagship and BeyondNational Strategies: Germany, France, the Netherlands, and OthersLeading Research Institutions and Academic-Industry CollaborationQuantum Communications and Cryptography in EuropeBuilding a Continental Quantum Network: QKD and the Quantum InternetAdvances in Quantum Cryptography and Post-Quantum SecurityQuantum Sensing and Metrology DevelopmentsEurope’s Global Position in Quantum Technologies: Strengths and ChallengesConclusion and OutlookIntroduction European involvement in quantum research dates back several decades, with EU-wide collaborations steadily growing since the early 2000s. Over the years, the European Commission funded a series of projects on quantum information and technology under its Framework Programs, laying groundwork for today’s efforts. A watershed moment came in 2016 with the Quantum Manifesto, a call to action endorsed by over 3,500 scientists and industry stakeholders across Europe. This manifesto galvanized political support and led to the launch of the EU Quantum Technologies Flagship in 2018 – a €1 billion, 10-year initiative aimed at keeping Europe at the forefront of the “second quantum revolution. ” The Quantum Flagship followed in the footsteps of other EU large-scale science programs (like the Graphene Flagship and the Human Brain Project) and marked one of the EU’s most ambitious research investments to date. Since its launch, the Quantum Flagship has funded a portfolio of R&D projects spanning quantum computing, communications, simulation, metrology, and enabling technologies. In the 2018–2021 ramp-up phase alone, it supported 20 major projects and engaged over 5,000 researchers across Europe. This coordinated approach sought to leverage Europe’s longstanding scientific excellence – indeed, over 50% of academic papers in quantum physics in the mid-2010s had European authors – and translate it into technological leadership. Early milestones included demonstrators like OpenSuperQ, a pan-European effort to build a 100-qubit superconducting quantum computer hosted at Jülich, Germany. By consolidating national strengths into a collective strategy, the EU aimed to kick-start... --- ### IBM Unveils 156-Qubit ‘Heron R2’ Quantum Processor > IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor - Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio - Published: 2024-11-20 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r2-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor called Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio. The Heron R2 chip is the second-generation follow-up to IBM’s 133-qubit “Heron” processor introduced in late 2023. Building on its predecessor, the Heron R2 not only adds more qubits but also delivers major improvements in qubit coherence, gate fidelity, and overall computational efficiency. IBM researchers report that the new system can execute quantum circuits with up to 5,000 two-qubit gate operations, nearly doubling the 2,880 two-qubit gate depth achieved in IBM’s 2023 benchmark. Technical Advancements in the Heron R2 ChipQiskit Software Updates Optimize Heron R2 PerformanceHeron R2’s Place in IBM’s Quantum RoadmapYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2024) – IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor called Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio. The Heron R2 chip is the second-generation follow-up to IBM’s 133-qubit “Heron” processor introduced in late 2023. Building on its predecessor, the Heron R2 not only adds more qubits but also delivers major improvements in qubit coherence, gate fidelity, and overall computational efficiency. IBM researchers report that the new system can execute quantum circuits with up to 5,000 two-qubit gate operations, nearly doubling the 2,880 two-qubit gate depth achieved in IBM’s 2023 benchmark. Thanks to these hardware upgrades and accompanying software optimizations, complex workloads that previously took over 120 hours to run on IBM’s best quantum machine can now be completed in roughly 2. 4 hours – an almost 50× speedup. IBM claims the Heron R2-based system is now powerful enough to tackle useful scientific problems in domains like materials science, chemistry, life sciences, and high-energy physics. The Heron R2 was unveiled at IBM’s Quantum Developer Conference in November 2024 as the company’s latest effort to push quantum computing toward practical “utility scale” performance. The new processor features 156 superconducting qubits arranged in IBM’s signature heavy-hexagonal lattice topology. This represents a modest qubit count increase from the 133 qubits in the original Heron chip, but far more important are the qualitative improvements under the hood. IBM has emphasized that qubit quantity alone is only one factor – coherence time, gate quality, and circuit capacity often matter more for achieving useful results. On those fronts, the Heron R2 brings substantial gains. It retains the tunable coupler architecture introduced with Heron R1, which allows inter-qubit... --- ### Quantum Hacking: Cybersecurity of Quantum Systems > While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity​​. As quantum computing moves into cloud... - Published: 2024-11-19 - Modified: 2025-02-20 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-hacking/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity​​. As quantum computing moves into cloud platforms and multi-user environments, attackers will undoubtedly seek ways to exploit them. IntroductionHacking Quantum ComputersAttack Vectors on Quantum HardwareExploiting Quantum Error Correction WeaknessesSide-Channel Attacks on Quantum ProcessorsSecurity Risks in Quantum Cloud ComputingHacking Quantum Communication Systems (QKD)Attacks on QKD Protocols and ImplementationSide-Channel Attacks on QKD HardwareGeneral Security Risks in Quantum TechnologiesFuture Security Implications and Mitigation StrategiesIntroduction Quantum technologies – from quantum computers to quantum communication systems – promise unprecedented capabilities and security. Quantum key distribution (QKD) is often advertised as "unhackable" because any eavesdropping is supposed to be revealed by the laws of physics. Similarly, quantum computers are powerful but delicate devices, leading some to believe they are secure by their very nature. However, no system is truly unhackable; even quantum systems have vulnerabilities. In theory, quantum cryptography offers provable security, but in practice implementation flaws and side-channels can be exploited​​. This article explores how quantum computers and communication systems can be hacked, examining known attack vectors, real-world exploits, and the broader security risks facing emerging quantum technologies. I will also discuss mitigation strategies and future implications for securing quantum systems. Hacking Quantum Computers Quantum computers operate with qubits in fragile superposition and entangled states. They require ultra-stable environments and error correction to function. While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity​​. As quantum computing moves into cloud platforms and multi-user environments, attackers will undoubtedly seek ways to exploit them. Below I'll outline key attack vectors on quantum computing hardware and software: Attack Vectors on Quantum Hardware Quantum hardware is highly sensitive to environmental disturbances. An attacker who can influence the physical environment of a quantum processor may induce decoherence or errors in qubits, disrupting computations or causing malfunction. For example, quantum devices are heat- and noise-sensitive, so an attacker could introduce excess heat or electromagnetic noise to force errors or even a shutdown –... --- ### Quantum AI: Harnessing Quantum Computing for AI (2024 Update) > Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with capabilities of AI... - Published: 2024-10-31 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-ai-qai/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with the learning capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI)​. In essence, QAI seeks to use quantum computing—which exploits phenomena like superposition and entanglement—to run AI algorithms that learn from data and make decisions, potentially far more efficiently than on classical computers​. This fusion promises to create more powerful and intelligent systems than those currently possible with classical computing alone​. IntroductionWhy Quantum Computing Is Suited for AIQuantum Parallelism (Superposition)Quantum Superposition and Exponentially Large State SpacesEntanglement and CorrelationsInterference and AmplificationQuantum Tunneling (Adiabatic Quantum Computation)Quantum-Inspired AlgorithmsSummaryQuantum AI Across Key Subfields of Artificial IntelligenceQuantum Machine Learning (Supervised and Unsupervised Learning)Quantum Deep Learning (Neural Networks and Deep Neural Architectures)Quantum Natural Language Processing (QNLP)Quantum Generative AI (Quantum GANs and Generative Models)Quantum Reinforcement Learning (QRL)Theoretical Foundations of Quantum AIQuantum Algorithms and Complexity Relevant to AIPractical Applications of Quantum AIOptimization and LogisticsQuantum-Enhanced Machine Learning for Business AnalyticsDrug Discovery and ChemistryQuantum AI in Material Science and PhysicsNatural Language and Customer InteractionFinance and Economics – Generative Scenarios and RiskGovernment and DefenseSpace and AerospaceRecent Academic Research and Key Papers in QAIIndustry, Academic, and Government Efforts in QAICommercial Sector: Tech Giants and StartupsAcademic and Research InstitutionsGovernment and National InitiativesRisks, Challenges, and Limitations of Quantum AIConclusion and OutlookIntroduction Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with the learning capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI)​. In essence, QAI seeks to use quantum computing—which exploits phenomena like superposition and entanglement—to run AI algorithms that learn from data and make decisions, potentially far more efficiently than on classical computers​. This fusion promises to create more powerful and intelligent systems than those currently possible with classical computing alone​. In QAI, quantum computers execute or inspire new machine learning and reasoning methods, while AI provides the frameworks (such as neural networks or decision processes) that can benefit from quantum speed-ups and capacity. Although still in its early stages, QAI is widely seen as a potential revolution across industries​. Major improvements are anticipated in how we solve complex problems and design intelligent solutions. The field has attracted significant investments from both government and private sectors, reflecting a global recognition of its transformative potential​. Collaborative efforts between academia and industry have been... --- ### Quantum Sensing - Key Use Cases > At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately... - Published: 2024-10-30 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-use-cases/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately constrained by thermal noise, electronic noise, and even the fundamental “shot noise” of particles. Quantum sensors break past these limits by exploiting the quirky properties of quantum mechanics, like superposition and entanglement. In a quantum sensor, particles (atoms, electrons, photons) are prepared in delicate quantum states that respond to minuscule changes in the environment. Because of this, quantum devices can detect tiny signals with precision beyond any classical strategy. IntroductionTransformative Use Cases Across IndustriesHealthcare: Imaging and Diagnostics ReimaginedDefense & Security: A Quantum Leap in Sensing CapabilitiesSpace & Climate Science: Eyes on Earth and BeyondEnergy & Industry: Precision and Efficiency BoostsFundamental Science: New Eyes on the UniverseConclusionIntroduction Imagine being able to see the invisible – detecting the faint magnetic whisper of a human brain in action, or sensing a submarine’s subtle disturbance of Earth’s gravity from miles away. Welcome to the world of quantum sensing, a breakthrough technology poised to redefine how we perceive reality. In this new era, sensors harness weird and wondrous quantum effects to achieve seemingly impossible precision. They can measure phenomena so faint or distant that classical instruments fall silent, much as a night vision scope reveals a starry sky invisible to the naked eye. Quantum sensing isn’t just an incremental improvement; it’s transformational – a leap that promises to unlock realms of detection once confined to science fiction. At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately constrained by thermal noise, electronic noise, and even the fundamental “shot noise” of particles. Quantum sensors break past these limits by exploiting the quirky properties of quantum mechanics, like superposition and entanglement. In a quantum sensor, particles (atoms, electrons, photons) are prepared in delicate quantum states that respond to minuscule changes in the environment. Because of this, quantum devices can detect tiny signals with precision beyond any classical strategy. For example, laser interferometers augmented with quantum‐entangled light have measured the ripples of spacetime from colliding black holes over a billion light years away. This level of sensitivity – literally nudging up against the limits set by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle – is what makes quantum sensing so profound. It’s as if nature gave us a noise floor, and... --- ### Guide to Quantum ML for Data Scientists > Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional machine learning. - Published: 2024-10-16 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-machine-learning-qml/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional machine learning. The motivation is simple: as data grows and models become more complex, classical computing faces limitations in speed and capacity. Quantum computers leverage principles like superposition and entanglement to process information in fundamentally new ways, which could provide drastic improvements for certain computational tasks​. Introduction to Quantum Machine LearningWhy is quantum computing relevant to ML? Quantum principles and how they link to MLChallenges in classical ML that quantum might solveCore QML AlgorithmsQuantum Support Vector Machines (QSVM)Quantum Neural Networks (QNN)Quantum Generative Adversarial Networks (QGAN)Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBM)Quantum Kernel MethodsComparisons with Classical ML ApproachesWhere Quantum Might Outperform Classical MLWhere Classical ML is Still Superior (for Now)Code ImplementationQuantum SVM with QiskitQuantum Neural Network with TensorFlow QuantumQuantum GAN with PennyLaneReal-World Use CasesFinanceHealthcareMaterials ScienceCybersecurityOptimization and LogisticsSummaryLimitations & ChallengesQuantum Hardware ConstraintsNoise, Error Correction, and Reliability --- ### Australia Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology > Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning... - Published: 2024-09-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-australia/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Australia Main Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning government, academia, and industry. The country has built a solid foundation with landmark research in quantum computing (particularly in silicon qubit hardware and error correction) and has extended its expertise to quantum communications and sensing applications. With the National Quantum Strategy and increased funding, Australia is doubling down on its strengths – aiming to translate its scientific leadership into economic opportunities and strategic capabilities. The coming years will test Australia’s ability to scale up prototype quantum devices, train and attract a specialized workforce, and foster startups into global competitors. The government’s backing and policy support, combined with the agility of Australian startups and the knowledge base of its universities, bode well for continued progress. Brief Historical Overview of Quantum Research in AustraliaQuantum Computing Advancements in AustraliaGovernment-Backed Quantum Initiatives and PolicyLeading Academic Research Institutions and BreakthroughsPrivate-Sector Quantum Developments in AustraliaQuantum Communications, Cryptography and Sensing AdvancementsGeopolitical and Competitive LandscapeConclusion and OutlookAustralia has emerged as a significant player in the global quantum technology race, leveraging decades of fundamental research to drive new national programs in quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. This report provides a technical overview of Australia’s quantum initiatives – from early academic milestones to government strategies, leading research institutions, private-sector ventures, advances in quantum cryptography/sensing, and the nation’s positioning in the geopolitical landscape. Brief Historical Overview of Quantum Research in Australia Australian scientists have been active in quantum physics since the late 20th century, building on strengths in quantum optics and “cheap and cheerful” table-top experiments that made the most of limited resources. A major inflection point came in 1999 with the launch of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology (CQC2T), based at the University of New South Wales (UNSW). This center – the best-funded Australian centre of excellence for two decades – focused on the singular goal of designing and building a silicon-based quantum computer. The collaborative effort yielded world-leading results, including the world’s first single-atom transistor in 2012 and the first two-qubit logic gate in silicon in 2015. These breakthroughs cleared crucial hurdles toward realizing quantum processors in silicon. In parallel, Australia established other centers of excellence exploring quantum technologies. The Centre for Engineered Quantum Systems (EQUS, funded 2011–2024) pursued quantum machines and sensing, while groups like the Centre for Quantum-Atom Optics (ACQAO) and CUDOS advanced atom optics and photonic quantum devices. This strong research base meant that Australian quantum science “punched above its weight” internationally, even as global investment in quantum R&D accelerated in... --- ### Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Meets Quantum AI (QAI) > Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity... - Published: 2024-09-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-quantum-ai-qai/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum AI Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity. PQC aims to develop cryptographic algorithms that can withstand attacks by quantum computers, while QAI explores the use of quantum computing and AI to both break and bolster cryptographic systems. IntroductionTechnical Insights into QAI and Cryptographic SecurityQuantum-Enhanced Cryptanalysis and AIImpact on Post-Quantum Algorithms and Lattice AttacksQAI in Defensive Cryptography and Protocol DesignUse Cases at the Intersection of PQC and QAIQuantum AI Breaking Classical EncryptionAI-Optimized Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)Secure Multiparty Computation and Homomorphic Encryption with QAI SupportQuantum-Resistant AI-Driven Cybersecurity FrameworksRegulatory and Strategic ImplicationsGlobal Standards and Government PreparednessQuantum AI Arms Race and Cryptographic SovereigntyFuture-Proofing Organizational Security Against QAI ThreatsConclusionIntroduction Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity. PQC aims to develop cryptographic algorithms that can withstand attacks by quantum computers, while QAI explores the use of quantum computing and AI to both break and bolster cryptographic systems. This article delves into deep technical insights on how QAI influences cryptographic security, examines use cases where QAI is changing the game for attacks and defenses, and discusses the regulatory and strategic implications of this quantum-AI intersection. We draw on academic research, industry whitepapers, and government initiatives to provide a well-rounded, cited exploration of this cutting-edge topic. Technical Insights into QAI and Cryptographic Security Quantum-Enhanced Cryptanalysis and AI Quantum computing promises dramatic speedups for certain computations, directly threatening traditional cryptography. Shor’s quantum algorithm famously can factor large integers and compute discrete logarithms in polynomial time, breaking RSA and elliptic-curve cryptosystems once a sufficiently large quantum computer exists. This means that widely used public-key algorithms would be defeated by a quantum computer’s ability to “sift through a vast number of potential solutions” much faster than classical computers​. Likewise, Grover’s algorithm provides a quadratic speedup for brute-force search, effectively halving the security of symmetric ciphers: for example, breaking AES-128 by Grover’s method would take on the order of $$2^{64}$$ operations instead of $$2^{128}$$, a big but manageable change mitigated by doubling key sizes (e. g. using AES-256)​. In practice,... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Aerospace & Automotive > Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation... - Published: 2024-09-09 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-aerospace-automotive/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Aerospace & Automotive Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation is still years away. In this article, we’ve seen that current developments – from corporate partnerships and research alliances to early quantum prototypes tackling real use cases – have already laid the groundwork. Automotive companies are using quantum algorithms in pilot projects to optimize everything from battery chemistry to factory logistics, and aerospace engineers are testing quantum methods for design optimization and materials discovery. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesAutomotive – Vehicle Design, Materials, Batteries & EfficiencyManufacturing & Supply Chain OptimizationAutonomous Vehicles & AIAerospace – Propulsion, Materials, and SpaceThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction ​Quantum computing harnesses principles of quantum mechanics – like superposition and entanglement – to process information in ways that classical computers cannot. The allure is clear: large-scale, error-free quantum computers could theoretically perform tasks impossible for today’s supercomputers​. This potential has massive implications for industries such as aerospace and automotive, where progress often hinges on crunching extremely complex computations. For example, aerospace engineers must simulate turbulent airflow around new aircraft designs – a feat so demanding that even the best classical simulations fall short, forcing reliance on costly wind tunnel tests​. Likewise, automakers grapple with multifaceted challenges from vehicle dynamics to battery chemistry that tax conventional high-performance computing. Quantum computing promises orders-of-magnitude boosts in computing capability for these problems​, making it a potential game-changer for designing better planes and cars, optimizing transportation networks, and accelerating innovation across both sectors. Global interest and investment in quantum tech are soaring accordingly. In the United States, government funding for quantum computing R&D nearly doubled from $449 million in 2019 to about $968 million in 2024​. Major aerospace and automotive companies are likewise pouring resources into quantum experimentation. The reason is simple: if quantum computers can eventually solve intractable equations for aerodynamics, materials science, or traffic optimization, the payoff would be transformative. Quantum algorithms might discover ultra-light yet strong composites for cars and aircraft, or instantly compute optimal routes for fleets to save fuel and time. In short, quantum computing’s ability to tackle “computationally intensive tasks” beyond classical limits​ positions it as a critical emerging technology for two of the world’s most technologically demanding industries. Current Developments Both the aerospace and... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Finance & Banking > Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector... - Published: 2024-08-31 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-finance-banking/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Finance & Banking Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector. Quantum technologies hold the potential to transform financial services – improving risk management, turbocharging trading and analytics, enhancing cybersecurity, and even forcing a paradigm shift in how data is secured. Banks and institutions around the world are investing in research and partnerships to stay quantum-ready, recognizing both the competitive opportunities and the existential threats that quantum computing brings. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Risk Management & Portfolio OptimizationQuantum Cryptography & Cybersecurity in FinanceQuantum Speedup in High-Frequency TradingQuantum Computing for Fraud Detection & ComplianceQuantum Monte Carlo Simulations in Financial ForecastingPost-Quantum Cryptography & Threats to Financial InstitutionsThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing promises to upend computing as we know it, harnessing quantum physics to perform calculations far beyond classical limits. Unlike ordinary bits, qubits can exist in multiple states at once and become entangled, enabling exponential processing power​. For the Finance and Banking sector, this power could be game-changing. Quantum computers have the potential to solve complex problems in finance – from simulating markets to optimizing investments – that are intractable for today’s supercomputers​. At the same time, they pose new risks by potentially breaking the encryption that secures financial data​. It’s no wonder banks are paying close attention. In fact, financial services are emerging as early adopters of quantum tech. Many major banks have launched quantum research initiatives or partnerships, eager to gain a competitive edge in risk analysis, trading, and security​. “There are more banks doing this serious effort in quantum than... in any other industry,” notes IBM Quantum’s research lead​. The allure is clear: quantum computing could unlock unprecedented modeling and optimization capabilities for finance – if the industry can also manage the profound cybersecurity challenges it brings. Current Developments From Wall Street to global central banks, investment in quantum R&D has surged in recent years. Banks are pouring resources into quantum computing teams, collaborations, and prototypes to prepare for a quantum-enabled future. JPMorgan Chase has been at the forefront, establishing its Global Technology Applied Research center to explore quantum algorithms for finance. The bank has partnered with IBM, Amazon, and academic labs on projects ranging from quantum portfolio optimization to... --- ### India Tests First Indigenous 6-Qubit Quantum Processor > India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting... - Published: 2024-08-30 - Modified: 2025-03-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/india-6-qubit-quantum-processor/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: India India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting quantum processor. A team of scientists from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) completed end-to-end testing of the 6-qubit device, marking a major step in India’s quantum research efforts​. This prototype – the country’s first quantum chip based on superconducting circuits – demonstrates India’s entry into the quantum hardware arena, a field dominated so far by only a few nations. India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting quantum processor. A team of scientists from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) completed end-to-end testing of the 6-qubit device, marking a major step in India’s quantum research efforts​. This prototype – the country’s first quantum chip based on superconducting circuits – demonstrates India’s entry into the quantum hardware arena, a field dominated so far by only a few nations. A Milestone for India’s Quantum Computing Program The successful test involved running quantum circuits on the indigenous processor through a cloud platform, demonstrating full stack integration. Researchers submitted a quantum program via a cloud interface, which was executed on the cryogenic 6-qubit hardware in real-time, and the results were sent back to the user – an end-to-end demonstration of a working quantum computing system​. Notably, all key components were developed in India: the qubits were designed and fabricated at TIFR’s Mumbai lab, using a novel ring-resonator architecture invented by TIFR scientists​. The control electronics and software stack were assembled by DRDO’s Young Scientists Laboratory for Quantum Technologies (DYSL-QT) in Pune with help from TCS, illustrating a collaborative effort between defense labs, academia, and industry. Key features of the 6-qubit quantum processor include: Superconducting Qubit Design: The processor uses superconducting circuit technology, making it the first of its kind to be designed and tested in India​. Superconducting qubits are the same approach used by leading quantum computing firms globally, underscoring the significance of India developing this technology domestically. End-to-End Functionality: The team demonstrated the chip’s functionality via a cloud-based interface – a user could send a quantum circuit to the processor, have it run on the 6-qubit hardware, and receive the... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Government & Defense > Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises... - Published: 2024-08-30 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-government-defense/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Government & Defense Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises enhancements across the board – unbreakable communications, unprecedented computing power for logistics and AI, new sensors that reveal hidden threats, and simulations that accelerate innovation. It also carries profound disruptive potential, especially for cybersecurity, meaning it can just as easily undermine a nation that is unprepared. IntroductionCurrent Developments in Quantum TechIndustry-Specific Use CasesCryptanalysis and Post-Quantum CryptographySecure Communications and Quantum NetworkingOptimization of Logistics and OperationsArtificial Intelligence and Machine LearningQuantum-Enhanced SimulationsSpace and Satellite ApplicationsQuantum Sensing for Detection, Navigation, and StealthIntroduction ​Quantum computing harnesses the counterintuitive principles of quantum mechanics – superposition and entanglement – to process information in ways impossible for classical computers. Unlike binary bits, quantum bits (qubits) can exist in multiple states at once (superposition) and influence each other instantaneously over distance (entanglement), enabling certain computations at exponentially faster scales​. These capabilities carry enormous promise for government and defense: solving complex problems in seconds that would take today’s supercomputers millennia, and unlocking new methods for secure communication and sensing. Defense experts warn that the first nation to fully operationalize quantum technology will gain a toolkit of capabilities that could overwhelm unprepared adversaries​. Indeed, some analysts compare the current quantum race to the Manhattan Project – a high-stakes technological contest that may determine the strategic balance of the 21st century​. In this article, we explore how quantum computing is poised to impact the global government and defense sector – from breakthroughs already underway to the revolutionary changes on the horizon. Current Developments in Quantum Tech Quantum computing is rapidly evolving from theory to reality, with government and industry efforts accelerating worldwide. Research Initiatives: Public-sector investment is at an all-time high. The United States launched a National Quantum Initiative and numerous Department of Defense (DoD) programs, while China’s public spending on quantum tech reportedly exceeds $15 billion – several times the U. S. level. U. S. defense agencies like DARPA are actively partnering with tech companies to benchmark progress. In fact, DARPA’s Quantum Benchmarking Initiative is enlisting multiple firms by 2025 to vet whether their quantum prototypes are on a practical path, with the goal of validating useful defense-ready... --- ### Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible, Safe, Secure AI > Addressing the Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible AI, Trustworthy AI, Secure AI, Ethical AI, and Safe AI Explained - Published: 2024-08-23 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/responsible-ai-secure-ai/ - Categories: Quantum AI - Tags: featured As AI continues to evolve and integrate deeper into societal frameworks, the strategies for its governance, alignment, and security must also advance, ensuring that AI enhances human capabilities without undermining human values. This requires a vigilant, adaptive approach that is responsive to new challenges and opportunities, aiming for an AI future that is as secure as it is progressive. IntroductionTrustworthy vs Responsible AITrustworthy AIAttributes of trustworthy AI1.      Transparent, interpretable and explainable2.      Accountable3.      Reliable, resilient, safe and secure4.      Fair and non-discriminatory5.      Safety and Robustness6.      Human-Centric Design7.      Inclusivity and AccessibilityResponsible AI SummarySecure AI, Safe AI and the wicked problem of AI alignmentSecure AIThe foundations of AI securityConfidentialityIntegrityAvailabilityChallenges in Securing AIScalabilityEvolving Threat LandscapeIntegration with Existing SystemsModel securityMonitoring and Capability ControlMaintaining AlignmentAlignment methodsConclusionIntroduction We have known for a long time that change is unavoidable. It is, as Heraclitus said more than 2,500 years ago, the only constant. And there has, especially since 1965 when Gordon Moore declared his now famous “law”, been a growing recognition that the pace of change is accelerating. But, what people tend to talk about far less is the resistance to change, a phenomenon as natural as change itself. It’s written into human nature, even into the fabric of the physical world: Newton’s third law of motion declares that for every action in the world there is an equal but opposite reaction. People don’t like change, and when it’s forced upon them, they dig in their heels. Does that explain the many concerns that experts across the world have about the now-rampant development of AI? Are these people, as many technophiles suggest, overreacting, merely resisting the unavoidable tide of change because they are afraid of the unknown? As I map out in my personal statement on AI risk, the simple answer to that question is ‘No’. There are many reasons to be concerned about unrestricted AI development - just ask those at the epicentre of the technology’s boom. Last year’s shock ouster of OpenAI CEO, Sam Altman, by the OpenAI Board was partly motivated by the belief that Altman was shortcutting due diligence and not doing enough to ensure OpenAI’s technologies were... --- ### Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in the USA > The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system... - Published: 2024-08-22 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/us-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: United States Main The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system integration, rather than just laboratory science. The next decade will be critical. If current trends hold, we will witness U.S. quantum computers tackling problems that were impossible before, quantum communications protecting real-world data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that society relies on. The U.S. has laid a strong foundation through its national initiatives, research excellence, and industry agility. Maintaining leadership will require sustained investment, a continued focus on education and talent, and smart partnerships between government, academia, and industry. IntroductionHistorical Context of U. S. Quantum ResearchQuantum Computing: Current State of U. S. Initiatives and AdvancesGovernment Strategy and National ProgramsResearch Leadership and Industry AdvancesQuantum Communications and Post-Quantum CryptographyQuantum Sensing and Metrology ApplicationsThe U. S. Global Position in the Quantum Technology RaceFuture Outlook: U. S. Quantum Research in the Coming YearsIntroduction Over a decade ago, I had the opportunity to work in the United States at the forefront of quantum technology. I even founded a startup, Boston Photonics, 12 years ago to explore photonic quantum computing. Admittedly, we were ahead of our time – quantum tech was still nascent and funding was scarce – and the company faced challenges. Yet, the experience was invaluable. It immersed me in the vibrant U. S. quantum ecosystem of the early 2010s, from cutting-edge academic labs to scrappy startups and strategic government forums. Even back then, it was clear that the U. S. was taking quantum technology very seriously. Researchers and officials frequently discussed the potential of quantum computing and communications, and their profound geopolitical implications. I remember participating in workshops where the talk wasn’t just about qubits and algorithms, but also about economic competitiveness and security – how quantum breakthroughs could redefine national power in the coming decades. This early insight into American efforts underscored a key point: the U. S. recognized early on that quantum technology would be more than just a scientific endeavor; it would be a strategic national asset. Those early experiences set the stage for what we see today. The United States has since launched major national initiatives in quantum information science, driven by both excitement over technological possibilities and awareness of global competition. Historical Context of U. S. Quantum Research The United States has been at the forefront of quantum science for decades, laying much of the groundwork that... --- ### NIST Unveils Post‑Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Standards > NIST has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms... - Published: 2024-08-13 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-standards/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms selected to protect data against future quantum-computer attacks. These four algorithms – CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, FALCON, and SPHINCS+ – emerged as the winners of NIST’s multi-year global competition to develop encryption and digital signature schemes that can withstand attacks from quantum computers. The Four Quantum-Resistant AlgorithmsYears in the Making: The PQC Standardization ProcessSecuring the Future: Significance for Cybersecurity and InfrastructureRegulatory Momentum: Governments Poised to Mandate Quantum-Resistant SecurityIndustry Response: Tech Giants Embrace the PQC EraConclusionGaithersburg, MD, USA (August 2024) – The U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms selected to protect data against future quantum-computer attacks. These four algorithms – CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, FALCON, and SPHINCS+ – emerged as the winners of NIST’s multi-year global competition to develop encryption and digital signature schemes that can withstand attacks from quantum computers. NIST has finalized three of the algorithms as Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) for immediate use, covering one general encryption method and two digital signature schemes, with the fourth algorithm’s standard expected by late 2024. The official announcement marks the culmination of an eight-year effort by NIST to proactively counter the quantum threat. “These finalized standards are the capstone of NIST’s efforts to safeguard our confidential electronic information,” said NIST Director Laurie Locascio. The new standards are built on hard mathematical problems – structured lattices and hash functions – that even quantum computers are not expected to solve, unlike today’s RSA and elliptic-curve cryptography which would be vulnerable. NIST is urging organizations to begin transitioning to the new algorithms as soon as possible now that the standards are ready. “The algorithms announced today are specified in the first completed standards from NIST’s PQC project, and are ready for immediate use,” the agency noted . This milestone “marks a significant milestone for ensuring that today’s communications remain secure in a future world where large-scale quantum computers are a reality” . The Four Quantum-Resistant Algorithms NIST’s four chosen algorithms each address a critical cryptographic need in... --- ### Myths and Realities of Quantum Commercialization > Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty... - Published: 2024-08-12 - Modified: 2025-04-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/myths-quantum-commercialization/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty does not mean it’s “too early.” The myths we unpacked – that quantum is always 20 years away, that only giants can play, that no market exists, that we can passively wait to license, or that generic support will do – all share a common trait: they underestimate the momentum and ingenuity already at work in the quantum ecosystem. The reality is that in labs and startups across the world, quantum technologies are taking their first steps into the marketplace. University spin-outs are building actual devices and software, signing on pilot customers, and attracting investment, thereby proving these myths wrong one by one. Each trapped-ion module sold, each quantum-secure communication link deployed, each optimization algorithm tested on a quantum processor is a brick in the road from research to industry. That road is being paved now, not in some distant future. And like any new road, it pays to have a good map. Specialized accelerators, government initiatives, and services such as Quantum TTO – which provides domain-specific commercialization guidance – are part of that map. Myth 1: “It’s Too Early – Quantum Tech Is Decades Away”Myth 2: “Only Big Companies Can Commercialize Quantum”Myth 3: “There’s No Market Yet for Quantum – No One to Buy It”Myth 4: “We Can Just License the IP Later – No Need for a Startup Now”Myth 5: “Our Regular Tech Transfer Process Is Enough – Quantum Doesn’t Need Specialized Support”Embracing Reality: Quantum’s Commercial Journey Has BegunIn a university lab late one evening, a quantum physicist stares at her experimental prototype and wonders if it will ever leave the confines of academia. “Maybe it’s 20 years too early to build a product from this,” she muses. Down the hall, an innovation manager fields a call from an investor who insists only tech giants like IBM and Google can make money from quantum. Such scenes are playing out at campuses worldwide. They reveal a quiet tug-of-war between extraordinary scientific progress and the cautious voices whispering that quantum technology isn’t ready for prime time. These whispers – call them myths – can profoundly shape the fate of university spin-offs. Universities are hotbeds of quantum innovation, from cutting-edge quantum computing prototypes to novel quantum sensors and secure communication systems. Yet technology transfer offices (TTOs) and entrepreneurship teams supporting these breakthroughs often encounter skeptical questions. Isn’t it too early? Is there even a market? Should we just license the patents and wait? Myths like these can hold back promising quantum ventures, keeping transformative ideas stuck in the lab. Meanwhile, investors and industry partners circle the quantum field with equal parts excitement and caution, unsure what is science fiction and what is viable business. To bridge this gap, we need to unpack the myths – and see what’s really happening out there. As we’ll find, the story of quantum commercialization today has echoes of past innovation... --- ### Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in Canada > Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal... - Published: 2024-08-07 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-canada/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Canada Main Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal and economic benefits. The country’s National Quantum Strategy, with its coordinated missions in computing, communications, and sensing, provides a roadmap for the next stage of quantum innovation in Canada . In the immediate future, we can expect to see a ramp-up of activity on several fronts. Quantum computing hardware developed by Canadian companies will continue to advance: D-Wave is slated to deliver new generations of annealers and is working toward a gate-model quantum processor, while Xanadu is on track to refine its photonic qubit technology with the long-term goal of a fault-tolerant quantum computer. These efforts, supported by government investment and private capital, could yield prototype quantum processors of increasing size and reliability within a few years. Historical ContextQuantum Computing in Canada: Current State of AdvancementsGovernment Initiatives and National StrategyAcademic Research Hubs and Quantum “Valleys”Private Sector Developments: D-Wave, Xanadu and a Budding Quantum IndustryQuantum Communications and Cryptography InitiativesQuantum Sensing and Metrology DevelopmentsCanada’s Global Position in the Quantum Technology RaceThe Canadian Quantum Ecosystem: Strengths and ObservationsConclusion and Future OutlookHistorical Context Canada’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the field’s earliest breakthroughs. In 1984, Canadian cryptographer Gilles Brassard (University of Montreal), together with IBM’s Charles Bennett, developed the first quantum key distribution (QKD) protocol (known as BB84), a foundational advance in secure quantum communications. By the late 1990s and early 2000s, Canada began making strategic investments to build a national quantum research ecosystem. BlackBerry founder Mike Lazaridis, for example, donated over $100 million in 2002 to establish the Institute for Quantum Computing (IQC) at the University of Waterloo, after having founded the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1999 with a $170 million endowment. These institutions, alongside federal programs like the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR) Quantum Information Science program (launched 2002), helped position Canada as a early leader in quantum science. Around the same time, Canada also became home to the world’s first commercial quantum computing company: D-Wave Systems was founded in 1999 in British Columbia, pioneering quantum annealing machines and unveiling a 128-qubit system as the first commercially available quantum computer in 2011. These milestones set the stage for Canada’s robust quantum research community and the emergence of a “Quantum Valley” innovation cluster in the Waterloo region. Quantum Computing in Canada: Current State of Advancements Government Initiatives and National Strategy The Canadian government has developed major initiatives to support quantum technology, with a strong emphasis on quantum computing. In January 2023, Canada officially launched its National Quantum Strategy (NQS), backed by a federal investment of $360 million over... --- ### NIST to Release PQC Algorithms in the Summer > The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks... - Published: 2024-05-24 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nist-pqc-summer/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks, according to White House cyber advisor Anne Neuberger. This development marks a significant step towards protecting data against future quantum computing threats. Although initially planned to release four algorithms, NIST will finalize and publish three this summer. This move addresses the potential risk of quantum computers decrypting sensitive data in the future, emphasizing the ongoing need for advanced cryptographic methods. For more details, visit The Record. --- ### Bridging the Quantum Lab-to-Market Gap: How External Experts Boost Tech Transfer > Quantum’s big wins will come from breaking silos and working together. Universities, TTOs, scientists, entrepreneurs, investors... - Published: 2024-05-22 - Modified: 2025-04-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-external-tto/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The race to commercialize quantum technology is on, and it’s not a sprint by a lone runner; it’s a relay. TTOs carry the baton of discovery from the lab, but to reach the finish line of market impact, they must hand off (and continuously team up) with external partners who can run the next laps. External commercialization experts provide the extra legs, the fresh perspective, and the stamina needed for quantum’s long journey to market. The Pain Points: Why Quantum Tech Transfer Is Harder Than It LooksEnter the External Experts: What Outside Partners Bring to the TableLessons From Pharma and Semiconductors: External Support as a Force-MultiplierQuantum’s Emerging Commercialization Ecosystem: Partnerships in ActionPartners, Not Replacements: Making the Collaboration WorkToward a “Quantum TTO” – The Next FrontierConclusion: Collaboration – The Quantum Advantage in Tech TransferLast month we explored why now is the moment to commercialize quantum technology. But recognizing urgency is one thing—figuring out how to turn arcane lab breakthroughs into real-world products is another. Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs) at universities and research institutions sit at this junction, tasked with shepherding quantum discoveries toward ventures, products, or licensing deals. It’s a formidable challenge. Quantum science isn’t a smartphone app you can spin up in a garage; it’s esoteric physics, cryogenic hardware, and complex algorithms all rolled into one. So how can TTOs succeed? One answer: by teaming up with external commercialization experts who have the right mix of domain savvy, business acumen, and industry connections to complement internal efforts. In this follow-up piece, we'll look into how external partners—consultancies, venture studios, specialized advisors, accelerators—can bolster TTOs and research institutions. We’ll unpack the pain points TTOs face in quantum commercialization and look at lessons from other industries (pharma, semiconductors) that have been there, done that. We’ll also highlight real-world examples in quantum where outside partnerships helped spin out startups or seal licensing deals. The goal: show how a collaborative model where external experts and TTOs together turn quantum discoveries into successful ventures, without replacing the critical role of the TTO. The Pain Points: Why Quantum Tech Transfer Is Harder Than It Looks Even for seasoned tech transfer professionals, quantum tech presents unique headaches. TTOs are accustomed to bridging academia and industry, but quantum pushes that bridge to its... --- ### Quantum Computing Use Cases in Materials & Chemicals > Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. - Published: 2024-05-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-materials-chemicals/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Materials Science & Chemical Engineering Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. After decades of development, the vision is becoming reality. Quantum computers – though still nascent – have already shown they can emulate the quantum behavior of molecules and materials in ways that classical computers never could, hinting at their tremendous potential. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Materials DiscoveryMolecular & Chemical SimulationsQuantum-Assisted Drug & Polymer DesignBattery & Energy Storage InnovationCorrosion & Surface ScienceQuantum Sensors for Material CharacterizationSustainable & Green ChemistryThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing harnesses the counterintuitive properties of quantum physics – superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference – to process information in fundamentally new ways. Unlike classical computers limited by binary bits, quantum computers use qubits that can exist in multiple states simultaneously, enabling them to explore vast computational possibilities in parallel​. This paradigm is especially promising for materials science and chemical engineering, where many challenges boil down to understanding complex quantum-mechanical interactions of atoms and molecules​​. In fact, using quantum computers for computational chemistry and materials science may allow researchers to tackle problems “intractable on classical computers,” such as accurately simulating molecular behaviors or novel material properties​. Industry experts predict rapid growth in quantum computing over the next decade, driven largely by its potential in pharmaceutical, chemical, and materials applications​. In short, quantum computing offers a revolutionary toolset for these sectors – one that could accelerate innovation by solving equations and simulations that were previously unsolvable, ultimately leading to breakthroughs in new materials, chemical processes, and technologies. Current Developments Major strides in recent years indicate that quantum technology is steadily moving from theory to practice in materials science. Governments are investing heavily: for example, the U. S. Department of Energy launched a $30 million program to leverage quantum computing for chemistry and materials simulations​. This initiative (QC3) specifically targets breakthroughs like sustainable industrial catalysts, novel high-temperature superconductors for efficient power grids, and improved battery chemistries​. Each project in the program is challenged to achieve quantum solutions that outperform classical methods by 100× or more, aiming for transformative impacts such as significant greenhouse gas reductions or... --- ### China Unveils Xiaohong: A 504-Qubit Processor > Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip... - Published: 2024-05-11 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-xiaohong/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip ever built in China​. This record-breaking processor, developed by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics in collaboration with industry partner QuantumCTek, vaults China into the upper echelon of quantum hardware achievements. Xiaohong’s qubit count surpasses previous domestic efforts by an order of magnitude, marking a significant milestone in the nation’s quest for quantum computing leadership​. Just as importantly, the team reports that the chip’s quality metrics (qubit coherence lifetimes, gate fidelities, and usable circuit depth) are expected to rival those of leading international platforms like IBM’s quantum machines​. In other words, Xiaohong is not only bigger, but also aims to be better in reliability – a critical combination as the global quantum race accelerates. A New Milestone for China’s Quantum Computing AmbitionsFrom Zuchongzhi to Xiaohong: Rapid Progress in Qubit CountHow Xiaohong Stacks Up Against Google and IBMTechnical Advances Under the Hood – and Why They MatterBroader Implications: The Quantum Computing Race and Security ConcernsOutlookHefei, China (April 2024) - Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip ever built in China​. This record-breaking processor, developed by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics in collaboration with industry partner QuantumCTek, vaults China into the upper echelon of quantum hardware achievements. Xiaohong’s qubit count surpasses previous domestic efforts by an order of magnitude, marking a significant milestone in the nation’s quest for quantum computing leadership​. Just as importantly, the team reports that the chip’s quality metrics (qubit coherence lifetimes, gate fidelities, and usable circuit depth) are expected to rival those of leading international platforms like IBM’s quantum machines​. In other words, Xiaohong is not only bigger, but also aims to be better in reliability – a critical combination as the global quantum race accelerates. A New Milestone for China’s Quantum Computing Ambitions The unveiling of Xiaohong represents a major leap forward for China’s superconducting quantum computing program. With 504 quantum bits (qubits) on a single chip, Xiaohong crosses the long-anticipated “500+ qubit” threshold, demonstrating China’s ability to scale up quantum processors into the hundreds of qubits​. For context, the country’s previous record-holder was the Zuchongzhi 2. 1 processor with 66 qubits, debuted in 2021​. In the years since, Chinese researchers rapidly expanded their designs – from 66 qubits to 176 qubits by 2023, when an upgraded Zuchongzhi system was put online for public use​. Now Xiaohong pushes the frontier further to 504 qubits, roughly tripling the scale of China’s last-generation superconducting chips. This... --- ### Hole-Spin Qubits Demonstrated in Silicon FinFETs > Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by demonstrating a controllable interaction between hole-spin qubits... - Published: 2024-05-07 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/hole-spin-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Switzerland In a significant quantum computing breakthrough, researchers from the University of Basel and IBM Research–Zurich have achieved a controlled interaction between two quantum bits inside a standard silicon transistor. The team’s new paper "Anisotropic exchange interaction of two hole-spin qubits" in Nature Physics reports that they realized high-speed, high-fidelity operations between hole-spin qubits implemented in a fin field-effect transistor (FinFET) – a workhorse device of modern computer chips. This is the first time a two-qubit logic gate has been demonstrated using holes (the absence of electrons) confined in an industry-standard transistor structure, without any trade-off between operation speed and accuracy. The accomplishment marks a major step toward integrating quantum computing with mainstream semiconductor technology, since it shows that quantum bits (qubits) can leverage the same devices and fabrication processes used for billions of classical transistors. The significance of this result lies in its promise of scalability and compatibility. Quantum computers today remain limited to relatively small numbers of qubits, in part because they rely on exotic hardware that doesn’t easily scale. By contrast, FinFET transistors are ubiquitous in CMOS chips, so demonstrating qubits in a FinFET suggests a path to manufacturing quantum processors on a massive scale. The Basel/IBM team’s qubits achieved fast and reliable gate operations within a device essentially identical to those in commercial chips, underscoring the potential for combining quantum and classical computing architectures on the same silicon platform. In other words, this breakthrough hints that future quantum processors might be built with the very same technology that powers today’s smartphones and CPUs, vastly accelerating the marriage of quantum computing with the semiconductor industry. Understanding Hole-Spin Qubits and the New Research What is a hole-spin qubit? In a semiconductor, a “hole” is the absence of an electron – essentially a positively charged carrier that can move and... --- ### From Lab Breakthroughs to Quantum Boom: Why the Time to Commercialize is Now > External quantum commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the expertise that most academic teams lack... - Published: 2024-04-30 - Modified: 2025-04-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-commercialization/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The current stage of development in quantum isn’t about figuring out if the technology works – it’s about making it work reliably, at scale, and for a purpose. That requires an all-hands-on-deck approach. Universities and research institutes must continue to push the frontiers of knowledge. Tech transfer offices should be empowered with more resources and flexibility to nurture quantum projects for the long haul. And crucially, external commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the experience and acceleration that most academic teams lack. It’s a symbiosis: internal teams bring depth of knowledge, external partners bring breadth of execution skills. The Quantum Landscape: University Labs, Startups, and Billions in BackingEchoes of Past Tech Revolutions: From Mainframes to the InternetThe Challenge: Why Tech Transfer Offices Can’t Go It AloneCatalysts for Quantum Commercialization: Bridging the GapThe Quantum Leap: From Vision to ValueOn a crisp morning in a university lab, a team of physicists huddles around a tangle of cables and golden-hued chip racks. After months of experimentation, they’ve coaxed a handful of qubits into performing a complex calculation – a breakthrough. It’s the kind of eureka moment playing out in quantum research centers worldwide. But as the celebration fades, another question looms: how to take this fragile quantum innovation out of the lab and into the wider world? This journey – from scientific breakthrough to impactful product – defines the current stage of quantum technology. And by all accounts, quantum tech is at an inflection point: what was once the domain of ivory-tower research is rapidly becoming an ecosystem of startups, investors, and even government programs racing toward commercialization. The Quantum Landscape: University Labs, Startups, and Billions in Backing Not long ago, quantum computing and related technologies lived primarily in physics departments and national labs, intriguing scientists but far from real-world use. That’s changing fast. In the past decade, the number of quantum startups worldwide has surged by over 500%, as entrepreneurs translate quantum research into new ventures. Many of these startups are spun out of universities or founded by former graduate students and professors. They’re chasing opportunities in quantum computing hardware, software, encryption, sensing, and more. The competition is fierce, but the innovation is accelerating – reminiscent of how the personal computing boom once sprung from a proliferation of garage startups. Crucially, this quantum startup surge is being fueled by unprecedented investment. According to McKinsey, quantum tech startups secured $8. 5... --- ### Major Leap for Quantum Internet: First Critical Connection > In a pioneering achievement, researchers have established a crucial connection necessary for the quantum internet... - Published: 2024-04-20 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/imperial-quantum-internet/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom London, April 2024 – In a groundbreaking advancement for the future of global communication, researchers from Imperial College London and their partners at the Universities of Southampton, Stuttgart, and Würzburg have established a core link necessary for the quantum internet, enabling, for the first time, the production, storage, and retrieval of quantum information in a single system. According to the announcement on Imperial’s website, the collaborative team has combined quantum dot technology with atomic quantum memory, effectively interfacing these components so that quantum data can be sent and received via standard optical fibers. The innovation marks a major stride in harnessing entangled photons for long-distance, tamper-proof communication—an approach that could eventually underpin robust global quantum networks and distributed quantum computing. By uniting reliable quantum sources with stable quantum memories, the group has set the stage for true quantum-enabled infrastructure, bringing the dream of a hack-proof “quantum internet” one step closer to reality. Why It Matters This breakthrough resonates far beyond the laboratory, laying pivotal groundwork for several game-changing applications: 1. Secure Communication: Quantum networks rely on the laws of physics—rather than computational intractability—to guard against eavesdropping. Any attempt to intercept or measure quantum data irreversibly disturbs it, alerting legitimate parties to a security breach. By combining quantum dot emitters (which generate entangled photons) with atomic memories (where quantum states can be stored and retrieved), the research team effectively demonstrated a core building block for end-to-end quantum encryption over standard telecom fibers. 2. Distributed Computing: Long-distance transmission of quantum states is not just about secure messaging; it’s also a cornerstone of distributed quantum computing. Different quantum processors can be linked together to share workloads, exchange entanglement resources, and perform collaborative computations beyond the reach of classical machines. 3. Compatibility with Existing Infrastructure: By showing that quantum signals can propagate over standard... --- ### New Legislation to Boost U.S. DoD Quantum Capabilities > A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's integration of quantum - Published: 2024-04-12 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/dod-quantum-bill/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's development and integration of quantum technologies, enhancing capabilities in areas like navigation, sensing, and artificial intelligence. The Defense Quantum Acceleration Act, championed by Rep. Elise Stefanik and Sen. Marsha Blackburn, proposes the creation of a quantum advisor role and a center of excellence within the Defense Department as well as increase the funding for quantum information sciences. This move is in response to growing global competition in quantum technologies, particularly from China, which significantly outpaces the U. S. in quantum investments. The bill seeks to foster quicker innovation through increased collaboration with private sectors and academia For more details, you can read the full text of the bill here. --- ### EU Publishes a Recommendation on Post-Quantum Cryptography > EU publishes "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography" - Published: 2024-04-12 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-recommendation-post-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe In another sign of Q-Day concerns and preparations heating up recently, the European Commission has published a key recommendation urging EU member states to adopt a harmonized approach to post-quantum cryptography. This guidance, "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography," is part of the EU's proactive strategy to address the vulnerabilities of current cryptographic measures in the quantum era. The recommendation outlines a plan for transitioning to quantum-resistant cryptographic technologies. Central to this initiative are the efforts by the EU’s cybersecurity experts, along with collaborations with entities such as the NIS Cooperation Group and the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) on the evaluation and selection of the appropriate Post-Quantum Cryptography algorithms and their adoption as EU standards for a harmonized implementation across the Union. Furthermore, the Commission outlines the urgency of integrating these new cryptographic standards into existing systems and protocols. This transition is not only about adopting new algorithms but also ensuring that all current digital platforms, from public administration to private sector operations, are fortified against potential quantum-computational threats. As part of the ongoing developments, the Commission expects the first wave of these new standards to be ratified by 2024, marking a significant milestone in Europe's digital security landscape. For more details, you can view the commission's press release or see the full recommendation on the European Commission's official website. --- ### Microsoft Announces Record Breaking Logical Qubit Results > Microsoft and Quantinuum announced a significant achievement in quantum computing, demonstrating the most reliable logical qubits on record - Published: 2024-04-04 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/logical-qubit-microsoft/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Microsoft and Quantinuum have announced a major quantum computing breakthrough: the creation of the most reliable logical qubits on record, with error rates 800 times lower than those of physical qubits. In an achievement unveiled on April 3, 2024, the teams reported running over 14,000 quantum circuit trials without a single uncorrected error. This accomplishment was made possible by combining Microsoft’s innovative qubit virtualization and error-correction software with Quantinuum’s high-fidelity ion-trap hardware. The result is a dramatic leap in quantum reliability that many experts believed was still years away. Beyond setting a record, this milestone is significant for the entire quantum ecosystem. It effectively pushes quantum computing beyond the noisy intermediate-scale era (NISQ) into what Microsoft calls “Level 2 Resilient” quantum computing. In other words, the experiment demonstrated for the first time that error-corrected qubits can outperform the basic physical qubits by a wide margin, marking an essential step toward full fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC). Achieving such a low error rate for logical qubits is viewed as a critical turning point on the road to practical quantum machines. It suggests that the long-anticipated transition from today’s error-prone quantum processors to tomorrow’s robust, application-ready quantum computers is finally underway. This breakthrough paves the way for more complex quantum computations and even hybrid supercomputers that integrate quantum processors with classical high-performance computing and AI. The news underscores a new phase in the quantum computing race, injecting fresh optimism that real-world problems solvable only by quantum means may come within reach sooner than expected. Understanding Logical Qubits and Error Correction Logical qubits are an essential concept for scaling quantum computers beyond the fragile performance of individual physical qubits. A logical qubit isn’t a single physical unit, but rather a virtual qubit encoded across multiple physical qubits with the aim of detecting and correcting... --- ### Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Switzerland > Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative... - Published: 2024-03-20 - Modified: 2025-03-14 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-switzerland/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Switzerland Main Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative entrepreneurship can make a country a major player in the second quantum revolution. In the span of two decades, Switzerland has built a world-class quantum R&D environment – featuring top universities (ETH, EPFL, Geneva, Basel) driving advances in computing and cryptography, national programs knitting these efforts together, and companies turning theory into practice. The country’s early bets on quantum science (e.g. funding NCCRs, supporting a QKD startup) are paying off in the form of global leadership in areas like quantum cryptography and instrumentation. As the quantum field moves from research to real-world implementation, Switzerland is well-positioned to benefit. Its strong talent pool continues to grow, with new graduates skilled in quantum engineering and computing coming out of dedicated programs. Brief Historical OverviewQuantum Computing in SwitzerlandGovernment-Backed Quantum Initiatives and StrategyAcademic Strength and ContributionsPrivate-Sector Quantum Developments in SwitzerlandQuantum Cryptography and Secure Communication LeadershipGeopolitical and Competitive LandscapeConclusion and OutlookSwitzerland punches above its weight in quantum science and technology, leveraging a long tradition of excellence in physics, strong government support, and vibrant academia-industry collaboration. Despite its modest size, Switzerland boasts some of the world’s highest-impact quantum research and early commercial successes in quantum cryptography. This report provides a technical overview of Switzerland’s quantum ecosystem – from historical milestones and national initiatives to academic leadership, startups, quantum cryptography advances, and the nation’s position in the global quantum race. Brief Historical Overview Switzerland has been at the forefront of quantum research for decades, laying groundwork for today’s “second quantum revolution. ” Key milestones include: 2001: Launch of the first National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) focused on nanoscience, marking a strategic commitment to quantum-related fields. In total, four quantum-focused NCCRs (in nanoscience, quantum photonics, quantum science & technology, and spin qubits) have been established since 2001, each with roughly CHF 50 million in funding. These centers helped attract over 30 top quantum scientists as professors to ETH Zurich, EPFL, University of Basel, University of Geneva and other Swiss institutions. 2007: Geneva’s ID Quantique (a University of Geneva spin-off) deployed the world’s first commercial quantum cryptography system to secure a government election network. This pioneering quantum key distribution (QKD) installation protected vote transmissions in the Geneva state elections, a landmark real-world use of quantum security. 2011: The NCCR Quantum Science and Technology (QSIT) was established, uniting groups across ETH Zurich, EPFL, Geneva, Basel and others under a 12-year research program. During its tenure, Swiss researchers achieved breakthroughs such as a world-record 550 km fiber transmission of quantum-encrypted data (University of Geneva) and the coupling of two different quantum systems... --- ### Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) Quantum Risk Advisory > Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issues "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum" - Published: 2024-02-27 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mas-quantum-advisory/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: ASEAN On February 20, 2024, the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issued Circular No. MAS/TCRS/2024/01, titled "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum". Targeted at CEOs of all financial institutions (FIs), the Advisory addresses the emerging cybersecurity challenges posed by quantum computing advancements. It warns of the potential for quantum computers to compromise widely used encryption and digital signature algorithms, thereby threatening the security of financial transactions and sensitive data managed by FIs. Key Recommendations in the Advisory: FIs are encouraged to stay informed about quantum computing developments and understand their implications for cybersecurity. This includes tracking potential threats and exploring quantum security solutions such as post-quantum cryptography (PQC) and quantum key distribution. FIs should ensure that both their management and third-party vendors are aware of these issues and are prepared to support the transition to quantum-resistant solutions. Financial institutions should work closely with their IT vendors to evaluate and mitigate risks in their IT supply chains related to quantum threats. This involves pushing vendors to develop and eventually supply quantum-resistant solutions as they become available. FIs should maintain an inventory of their cryptographic assets to identify critical assets that need priority migration to quantum-resistant technologies. This involves assessing the vulnerability of cryptographic solutions currently in use and classifying IT and data assets reliant on these technologies. The Advisory encourages FIs to enhance the technical competencies of their staff regarding quantum security solutions and to revise internal policies and procedures accordingly. FIs should develop strategies to mitigate risks for assets that cannot immediately transition to PQC and prepare for scenarios where quantum risks materialize sooner than expected. Where resources allow, FIs should consider conducting proof-of-concept trials with quantum security solutions to gauge the potential operational impacts and tackle any implementation challenges. The advisory is available here. --- ### Quantum Repeaters: The Key to Long-Distance Quantum Comms > Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which qubits can be sent - Published: 2024-02-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-repeaters/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which quantum information (qubits) can be sent without being lost or corrupted​. They tackle a fundamental challenge: photons carrying qubits tend to get absorbed or scatter as they travel through fiber or air, and quantum states can decohere (lose their quantum properties) due to environmental noise. Introduction to Quantum RepeatersWhy Quantum Repeaters Are Critical for Quantum NetworksKey Technologies Behind Quantum RepeatersEntanglement SwappingQuantum MemoriesQuantum Error Correction and Entanglement PurificationComparison with Trusted NodesCurrent Status of Quantum Repeater DevelopmentCybersecurity Implications of Quantum RepeatersEnhanced Security Through Quantum NetworkingPotential Vulnerabilities and Attack VectorsFuture Prospects and ChallengesConclusionIntroduction to Quantum Repeaters Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which quantum information (qubits) can be sent without being lost or corrupted​. They tackle a fundamental challenge: photons carrying qubits tend to get absorbed or scatter as they travel through fiber or air, and quantum states can decohere (lose their quantum properties) due to environmental noise. In a direct fiber link, the signal from a single photon is quickly attenuated – for example, after only tens of kilometers, most photons are lost, and beyond a few hundred kilometers virtually none get through​. Moreover, qubits cannot be amplified like classical signals because any measurement or attempt to copy a quantum state will disturb it (as dictated by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the no-cloning theorem)​. This means the classical solution of using repeaters to boost signal strength fails for quantum data. A new approach is needed to send quantum information across continental distances. Quantum repeaters provide that solution by leveraging entanglement and quantum memory instead of measurement and amplification. In essence, a quantum repeater breaks a long communication distance into shorter segments and creates entangled quantum states across each segment. Through a process called entanglement swapping, these segments can be joined, extending entanglement step-by-step over the full distance without ever measuring the intermediate qubits​. By teleporting quantum states from one segment to the next using entanglement, the fragile quantum information is relayed across the network without directly transmitting a single photon end-to-end​. Throughout this process, quantum memories at... --- ### Quantum Technologies & Quantum Computing in the UK > The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. - Published: 2024-02-12 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-united-kingdom/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: United Kingdom Main The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. The country’s comprehensive approach – supporting research excellence, investing in infrastructure and industry collaboration, and aligning with national goals in security and economy – provides a strong platform for future success. Over the next decade, the UK is expected to deliver tangible quantum innovations: from prototype quantum computers accessible to researchers and industry, to secure quantum communication links safeguarding data, to quantum sensors revealing and navigating the world in fundamentally new ways. IntroductionHistorical Context of UK Quantum ResearchQuantum Computing in the UK: Current State and InitiativesGovernment Strategy and National ProgramsAcademic Centers of Excellence in Quantum ComputingPrivate-Sector Developments and StartupsQuantum Communications and CryptographyQuantum Sensing and Metrology InitiativesThe UK’s Global Position in Quantum Technology: Strengths and ChallengesConclusion and Future OutlookIntroduction Quantum technologies – encompassing quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing – have become a strategic focus for nations worldwide. The United Kingdom has emerged as a front-runner in this “second quantum revolution,” leveraging a strong academic heritage in quantum physics and substantial government investment to build a vibrant quantum ecosystem. Historical Context of UK Quantum Research The UK’s engagement with quantum science dates back to foundational theoretical work and early breakthroughs that set the stage for today’s technologies. In 1985, Oxford physicist David Deutsch published a seminal paper outlining the concept of a universal quantum computer, effectively introducing the idea of quantum computing to the world. A few years later, in 1991, Artur Ekert (then at the University of Oxford) pioneered entanglement-based quantum cryptography, demonstrating that quantum entanglement could be used to distribute encryption keys with security guaranteed by the laws of physics. These early contributions by UK researchers – from quantum computing theory to quantum cryptography – helped trigger a global surge of interest in quantum information science and established the UK as a hub of quantum expertise. Building on this academic foundation, the UK government recognized the transformative potential of quantum technologies and moved early to support their development. In 2013/2014, the government launched the UK National Quantum Technologies Programme (NQTP), one of the world’s first coordinated national quantum initiatives. The NQTP was established to translate cutting-edge quantum research into new products and services, uniting academia, industry, and government around a common mission. The initial phase of NQTP (2014–2019) invested roughly £270 million... --- ### Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction by Nord Quantique > Researchers from Nord Quantique have developed an innovative error correction system that drastically reduces the number of qubits needed... - Published: 2024-02-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/error-correction-nord-quantique/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Canada Sherbrooke, Canada (February 8, 2024) – Nord Quantique, a Canadian quantum computing startup, has announced a breakthrough in quantum error correction using the Gottesman–Kitaev–Preskill (GKP) bosonic code. The company demonstrated, for the first time, an increase of 14% in the coherence time of a single superconducting qubit by correcting its errors without adding any extra physical qubits. This hardware-efficient feat effectively creates a “logical qubit” out of one physical qubit – a milestone achievement on the road from today’s NISQ (Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum) devices to tomorrow’s fully fault-tolerant quantum computers. Industry experts note that useful quantum computing cannot be achieved without error correction, and Nord Quantique’s result marks a significant step toward that goal. By stabilizing a qubit with GKP error-correcting code at the individual qubit level, Nord Quantique slashed the usual overhead required for error correction and moved the field closer to the fault-tolerant era. Nord Quantique's press release here: Nord Quantique demonstrates quantum error correction, first company to make a logical qubit out of a physical qubit, and the research paper Autonomous quantum error correction of Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill states at arXiv preprint. This achievement is described as a “quantum leap” for error correction research. Traditional quantum error correction schemes often require “brute force” redundancy – using dozens or even thousands of physical qubits to encode one logical qubit. In contrast, Nord Quantique’s GKP-based approach corrected errors on a lone qubit, hinting that fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC) might be reachable with only hundreds of physical qubits instead of millions. The ability to lengthen qubit lifetime (coherence) without massive overhead is crucial for bridging the gap between today’s error-prone NISQ processors and the robust, large-scale quantum machines needed for practical applications. By dramatically reducing qubit overhead, Nord Quantique’s breakthrough could shorten the timeline to useful, scalable quantum computing. It represents a... --- ### Origin Quantum’s Wukong: China’s 72-Qubit Processor > In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit... - Published: 2024-01-15 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/origin-quantum-wukong/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit superconducting quantum processor. Launched on January 6, 2024, this third-generation quantum computer is China’s first home-grown superconducting quantum computer and the most advanced of its kind in the country​​. The system – named after the Monkey King Sun Wukong (famed for “72 transformations” in Chinese legend) – symbolizes its powerful capabilities and marks China’s official entry into the era of accessible quantum computing​​. A 72-Qubit Breakthrough and Global DebutWhat Wukong Has Achieved So FarStacking Up Against IBM, Google, and Chinese PeersTechnical Advancements and Why They MatterIndustry and Cybersecurity ImplicationsA New Chapter in Quantum Computing’s Global StoryHefei, China, (Jan 2024) — In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit superconducting quantum processor. Launched on January 6, 2024, this third-generation quantum computer is China’s first home-grown superconducting quantum computer and the most advanced of its kind in the country​​. The system – named after the Monkey King Sun Wukong (famed for “72 transformations” in Chinese legend) – symbolizes its powerful capabilities and marks China’s official entry into the era of accessible quantum computing​​. A 72-Qubit Breakthrough and Global Debut Wukong is powered by a 72-qubit superconducting chip dubbed the “Wukong chip,” fabricated on China’s first dedicated quantum chip production line​. Uniquely, the chip contains 198 physical qubits in total: 72 functional qubits plus 126 additional coupler qubits that enhance connectivity​. This design echoes approaches by leading labs (Google and IBM also employ coupler circuits) and is intended to maintain control over interactions as the qubit count rises. Key performance metrics like qubit coherence times and readout fidelity are at internationally competitive levels, according to the team​. The Wukong system is housed in a dilution refrigerator operating near absolute zero, with custom high-density cryogenic interconnects to support its hundreds of qubits​. Beyond the impressive qubit count, Wukong introduced new engineering breakthroughs. It is integrated with Origin’s third-generation quantum control system (“Tianji”), enabling the first-ever automated batch testing of quantum chips in China​. This automation accelerated chip calibration and validation, boosting the machine’s overall runtime efficiency by dozens of times​. In practice, that means faster turn-around in tuning qubits and more stable performance – critical steps toward scaling up... --- ### What is Entanglement-as-a-Service (EaaS)? > Entanglement-as-a-Service (EAAS) is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly... - Published: 2024-01-10 - Modified: 2025-03-10 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-service-eaas/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Entanglement-as-a-Service is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly rooted in quantum physics, its current development is accelerating through global research efforts, and its promise has caught the attention of the telecommunications industry and beyond. While challenges remain in scaling and integration, the trajectory is clear: EaaS and quantum networks will likely be as transformative in the 21st century as the internet was in the 20th, opening new frontiers in secure communication, computing, and sensing. IntroductionTechnical FoundationsQuantum Entanglement and Quantum Networking BasicsHow EaaS Is ImplementedCurrent Research & Status of EaaSTelecommunications & Infrastructure IntegrationCommercialization and Use CasesFuture Outlook for EaaSIntroduction Entanglement-as-a-Service (EaaS) refers to the on-demand delivery of quantum entanglement over a network, enabling distant users or devices to share entangled qubit pairs as a resource. In essence, a quantum network provider supplies entangled quantum states to clients as a service, analogous to how classical networks provide data connectivity . This report explores the foundations of EaaS, current research and implementations, its integration into telecommunications infrastructure, emerging commercial use cases, and the future outlook for this cutting-edge paradigm. Technical Foundations Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Networking Basics Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where two or more particles become correlated in such a way that their quantum states are interdependent, no matter the distance between them. Measuring one entangled particle instantly influences the state of its partner, a counter-intuitive effect that Einstein famously dubbed “spooky action at a distance. ” These non-classical correlations have no equivalent in classical communication and form the bedrock of quantum information science. In a quantum network, entanglement is the fundamental service that links distant nodes. Instead of merely sending bits, a quantum network distributes entangled qubits (often photons) between nodes. Once two nodes share an entangled pair (often called a Bell pair), they can perform quantum communication protocols. For example, by using entangled qubits and classical messages, one can achieve quantum teleportation – transferring a quantum state from one node to another without sending the physical particle itself. Teleportation doesn’t move matter, but it uses shared entanglement and a few classical bits to transmit the state of a qubit instantly across the network. This ability to transmit qubit states forms the basis of quantum communications and distributed quantum computing. Achieving entanglement distribution over... --- ### Marin's Statement on AI Risks > The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded, non-aligned, recursive self-improvement and disseminating new capabilities to other AIs is a concern - Published: 2024-01-01 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/marin-statement-on-ai-risk/ - Categories: Quantum AI - Tags: featured The rapid development of AI brings both extraordinary potential and unprecedented risks. AI systems are increasingly demonstrating emergent behaviors, and in some cases, are even capable of self-improvement. This advancement, while remarkable, raises critical questions about our ability to control and understand these systems fully. The rapid development of AI brings both extraordinary potential and unprecedented risks. AI systems are increasingly demonstrating emergent behaviors, and in some cases, are even capable of self-improvement. This advancement, while remarkable, raises critical questions about our ability to control and understand these systems fully. In this article I aim to present my own statement on AI risk, drawing inspiration from the Statement on AI Risk from the Center for AI Safety, a statement endorsed by leading AI scientists and other notable AI figures. I will then try to explain it. I aim to dissect the reality of AI risks without veering into sensationalism. This discussion is not about fear-mongering; it is yet another call to action for a managed and responsible approach to AI development. I also need to highlight that even though the statement is focused on the existential risk posed by AI, that doesn't mean we can ignore more immediate and more likely AI risks such as proliferation of disinformation, challenges to election integrity, dark AI in general, threats to user safety, mass job losses, and other pressing societal concerns that AI systems can exacerbate in the short term. Here's how I'd summarize my views on AI risks:AI systems today are exhibiting unpredictable emergent behaviour and devising novel methods to achieve objectives. Self-improving AI models are already a reality. We currently have no means to discern if an AI has gained consciousness and its own motives. We also have no methods or tools available to guarantee that complex AI-based autonomous systems will continuously operate in alignment with human well-being. These nondeterministic AI systems are increasingly being used in high-stakes environments such as management of critical infrastructure, (dis)information dissemination, or operation of autonomous weapons. There’s nothing sensationalist in any of these statements. The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded,... --- ### India’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives > India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining... - Published: 2023-12-29 - Modified: 2025-03-13 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-india/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: India Main India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining its rich legacy in fundamental physics with modern innovation frameworks to advance quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. The coming years are poised to witness India transitioning from prototyping to implementation: quantum computers solving domain-specific problems, quantum-encrypted channels protecting national data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that drive both science and industry. Quantum Computing Advancements in IndiaProgress in Quantum Communications and CryptographyDevelopments in Quantum Sensing and MetrologyIndia’s Global Position in Quantum TechnologyConclusion and Forward Outlook India’s engagement with quantum science has roots in the early 20th century. A seminal contribution came from Satyendra Nath Bose, whose 1924 paper on quantum statistics laid the foundation for Bose-Einstein statistics – a cornerstone of quantum mechanics. In the decades that followed, Indian physicists made theoretical strides, but dedicated quantum technology R&D infrastructure began taking shape only in recent times. A modern milestone was the work of Indian-American scientist Lov Grover, who in 1996 devised Grover’s algorithm – the second major quantum computing algorithm, highlighting India’s intellectual link to this emerging field. By the 2000s, research groups in institutes like TIFR and IISc were exploring quantum computation (e. g. using NMR techniques), and by the 2010s India started formal programs to nurture quantum technologies. In 2018, the government launched the Quantum-Enabled Science and Technology (QuEST) program, the country’s first coordinated quantum research initiative, funding 51 projects across themes like photonic quantum computing, ion-trap devices, and superconducting qubits. These efforts, though modest in scale, seeded a domestic quantum research ecosystem and trained a generation of researchers, setting the stage for larger national missions. Quantum Computing Advancements in India India’s quantum computing landscape has significantly accelerated in recent years through national missions, academic research, and industry partnerships. A pivotal step was the announcement of a National Mission on Quantum Technologies & Applications (NM-QTA) in 2020 with a proposed outlay of ₹8,000 crore (~$1 billion). This was followed by the establishment of a dedicated quantum hub: the I-Hub Quantum Technology Foundation (QTF) at IISER Pune in 2020, under the National Cyber-Physical Systems program. With a budget of ₹170 crore, I-Hub QTF’s flagship projects include developing an ion-trap based quantum... --- ### IBM Unveils Next-Gen 133-Qubit ‘Heron’ Quantum Processor > IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances.... - Published: 2023-12-28 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-133-qubit-heron-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances. The IBM Quantum Heron chip was unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023 as the company’s latest milestone in its quantum computing roadmap. IBM touts Heron as a next-generation processor that delivers significantly improved performance and reliability compared to its predecessors. This 133-qubit device introduces new technologies aimed at boosting quantum computation capability while laying the groundwork for IBM’s future quantum systems. Key Features of the Heron ChipWhy Heron Is a Significant MilestoneHow Heron Differs from IBM’s Earlier Chips (Eagle and Falcon)Context in IBM’s Quantum RoadmapYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2024) - IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances. The IBM Quantum Heron chip was unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023 as the company’s latest milestone in its quantum computing roadmap. IBM touts Heron as a next-generation processor that delivers significantly improved performance and reliability compared to its predecessors. This 133-qubit device introduces new technologies aimed at boosting quantum computation capability while laying the groundwork for IBM’s future quantum systems. Key Features of the Heron Chip 133 Superconducting Qubits: Heron contains 133 qubits, slightly more than IBM’s previous 127-qubit flagship (Eagle) and built using fixed-frequency transmon qubits. It surpasses the 100-qubit scale that IBM first achieved in 2021 with Eagle, marking another step in qubit count while maintaining stability. Tunable Coupler Architecture: A standout innovation in Heron is the use of tunable couplers between qubits. Unlike earlier processors with static coupling, Heron’s couplers can be adjusted to control interactions, which virtually eliminates cross-talk (undesired interference between neighboring qubits). This means qubits can be better isolated when not actively interacting, leading to cleaner operations. Improved Fidelity and Gate Performance: Thanks to its new architecture, Heron achieves a 3–5× improvement in overall device performance relative to IBM’s 127-qubit Eagle processor. In practical terms, IBM reports Heron can execute roughly 1,800 quantum gates within a single coherence cycle, about four times the number of gate operations Eagle could run in the same period. This makes Heron IBM’s lowest-error, highest-performing processor to date, significantly reducing error rates and increasing the complexity of circuits that can be run reliably. Foundation for Future... --- ### 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published > 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - Published: 2023-12-22 - Modified: 2024-05-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-timeline-report/ - Categories: Industry News Dr. Michele Mosca, a prominent figure in the field of quantum computing and cryptography, and one of the most prominent voices advocating for active preparation of industries and governments for the quantum era regularly publishes a survey of global quantum computing experts on their Q-Day predictions. The latest report, "The 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report," was just published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing, focusing on its potential impact on cybersecurity. The report gathers insights from 37 global experts in quantum computing. Expert Opinions on Timeline: 5 Years: Most experts see the likelihood of a quantum computer breaking RSA-2048 as very low. 10 Years: The likelihood increases but remains uncertain. 15-20 Years: A majority of experts estimate a higher likelihood, with significant confidence that a cryptographically-relevant quantum computer will be developed. 30 Years: Nearly all experts believe the threat will be realized. The report also highlights a few key upcoming milestones such as advancements in error correction and scalable quantum systems. And finally, the surveyed experts highlight the importance of continuous investment and avoiding overhyping current capabilities. For more details, you can read the full report here. --- ### IBM Unveils Condor: 1,121‑Qubit Quantum Processor > IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. - Published: 2023-12-11 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-condor/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023, Condor marks the first quantum chip to surpass 1,000 qubits, a milestone many in the field have eyed as a crucial step toward practical quantum computing. The new processor, built on IBM’s heavy-hexagonal qubit architecture and cross-resonance gate technology, pushes the boundaries of scale in quantum hardware. With Condor, IBM more than doubles its previous qubit count record and sets a new high-water mark in the global race for quantum computing power. Pushing the Frontier: Condor vs. Previous Quantum ProcessorsTechnical Breakthroughs Enabling 1,121 QubitsToward Useful Quantum Computing – Why Condor MattersBroader Implications: A Step Toward Quantum Advantage and New ChallengesConclusionYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Dec 2023) – IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023, Condor marks the first quantum chip to surpass 1,000 qubits, a milestone many in the field have eyed as a crucial step toward practical quantum computing. The new processor, built on IBM’s heavy-hexagonal qubit architecture and cross-resonance gate technology, pushes the boundaries of scale in quantum hardware. With Condor, IBM more than doubles its previous qubit count record and sets a new high-water mark in the global race for quantum computing power. This 1,121-qubit chip isn’t just a numbers game – it represents significant engineering breakthroughs. IBM reports Condor achieved a 50% increase in qubit density over prior designs, thanks to advances in fabrication and packaging. Fitting over a thousand superconducting qubits on a single slice of silicon required innovative 3D chip packaging and a mile of high-density cryogenic wiring inside the refrigerator. Despite its unprecedented scale, Condor’s performance (in terms of coherence times and gate fidelity) is said to be on par with its 433-qubit predecessor, Osprey, indicating that IBM managed to grow the processor’s size without a loss in quality. This feat – scaling up qubit count while maintaining performance – is viewed as an important “innovation milestone” for the industry. Pushing the Frontier: Condor vs. Previous Quantum Processors Condor’s debut comes on the heels of steady progress in superconducting quantum computing. In the past few years, IBM and others have been in a “qubit arms race,” steadily increasing qubit counts on a single chip. Condor... --- ### UK NCS Issues Guidance on Preparing for PQC > The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography," - Published: 2023-11-06 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-ncsc-post-quantum-cryptography/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United Kingdom The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography," which provides comprehensive guidance to help organisations and providers of Critical National Infrastructure (CNI) prepare for the migration to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This publication is a follow-up to the NCSC’s 2020 report on the current state of quantum mitigation and aims to address the emerging challenges in cryptographic security in the quantum era. The UK National Cyber Security Center (NCSC) has released a new whitepaper, titled "Next Steps: Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography". This paper offers anticipatory insights into the profound impact of quantum computing on the field of cryptography and how businesses can prepare themselves.  The whitepaper examines quantum computing and suggests a pragmatic approach to address it. Summary from the whitepaper: Most PKC algorithms in use today will be vulnerable to a CRQC. The best mitigation against the threat of quantum computers to traditional PKC is PQC. The security of symmetric cryptography is not significantly impacted by quantum computers, and existing symmetric algorithms with appropriate key sizes can continue to be used. PQC upgrades can be planned to take place within usual technology refresh cycles. ML-KEM (Kyber) and ML-DSA (Dilithium) are algorithms selected for standardisation by NIST that are suitable for general purpose use. All proposed parameter sets provide an acceptable level of security for personal, enterprise and OFFICIAL-tier government information. The NCSC recommends ML-KEM-768 and ML-DSA-65 as providing appropriate levels of security and efficiency for most use cases. The NCSC strongly advises that operational systems should only use implementations based on final standards. If a PQ/T hybrid scheme is chosen, the NCSC recommends it is used as an interim measure that allows a straightforward migration to PQC-only in the future. For detailed information and to access the full white paper,... --- ### Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures > Why multiple quantum computing paradigms? The goal is the same – realize a scalable, universal quantum computer – but the approaches differ... - Published: 2023-11-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/taxonomy-paradigms/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms - Tags: featured, popular Over the past few decades, researchers have devised multiple quantum computing paradigms – different models and physical implementations of quantum computers – each addressing these challenges in unique ways. In essence, there is no single “quantum computer” design; instead, there are many parallel approaches, each with its own principles, trade-offs, and technological hurdles. IntroductionMain Quantum Computing Paradigms and ArchitecturesGate-Based Quantum ComputingSuperconducting QubitsTrapped-Ion QubitsPhotonic Quantum ComputingNeutral Atom Quantum Computing (Rydberg Qubits)Silicon-Based Qubits (Quantum Dots & Donors in Silicon)Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors and Defects (NV Centers, Quantum Dots in III-V Materials)Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC)Photonic Cluster-State ComputingIon Trap/Neutral Atom Implementations of MBQCTopological Quantum ComputingMajorana QubitsFibonacci AnyonsQuantum Annealing and Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)Quantum Annealing (QA)Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)Exotic and Emerging ApproachesQuantum Cellular AutomataBiological Quantum ComputingDNA-Based Quantum Information ProcessingDissipative Quantum ComputingAdiabatic Topological Quantum ComputingBoson Sampling (Gaussian and Non-Gaussian)Quantum WalkNeuromorphic Quantum ComputingHolonomic (Geometric Phase) Quantum ComputingTime Crystals and Their Potential Use in Quantum ComputationOne-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1)Quantum Annealing + Digital Boost ("Bang-Bang Annealing")Photonic Continuous-Variable (CV) ComputingQuantum LDPC and Cluster StatesQuantum Cellular Automata in Living CellsHybrid Quantum Computing ArchitecturesSummaryCybersecurity ImplicationsThreat to current cryptographyWhich paradigm is likely to get there first? Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Each paradigm’s effect on PQCSide-channel and other security aspectsQuantum for defenseWhat should cybersecurity professionals doWhich paradigms more likely in adversaries’ handsConclusion for cybersecurity expertsConclusionSummary of Main ParadigmsWhich approach will dominate? Practical OutlookImplications for society and industryFinal thoughtsIntroduction Quantum computing is a new paradigm of computing that exploits principles of quantum mechanics – superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference – to perform certain calculations far more efficiently than classical computers. Instead of binary bits, quantum computers use qubits which can exist in superpositions of 0 and 1. This allows quantum computers to process a vast space of possible states in parallel. However, harnessing this power is exceptionally challenging due to issues like decoherence (loss of quantum state) and noise. Over the past few decades, researchers have devised multiple quantum computing paradigms – different models and physical implementations of quantum computers – each addressing these challenges in unique ways. In essence, there is no single “quantum computer” design; instead, there are many parallel approaches, each with its own principles, trade-offs, and... --- ### 99.5% Fidelity in Neutral-Atom Qubits Achieved > A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99.5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom... - Published: 2023-10-30 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quera-neutral-atom/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99. 5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom qubits operating simultaneously. This milestone represents a crucial step towards the practical application of quantum computing in commercial environments. The collaborative research signifies a major leap forward in the quest for reliable quantum information processing. Detailed findings from this research are available in a paper published on ArXiv. Neutral atom arrays have recently gained recognition as a promising quantum computing platform, thanks to their capability for coherent control over large numbers of qubits and their flexible, dynamically reconfigurable architecture. Achieving high-fidelity operations is essential for surpassing quantum error-correcting thresholds, a prerequisite for the effective deployment of quantum technologies. For more detailed insights, the complete research paper is accessible on ArXiv: High-fidelity parallel entangling gates on a neutral atom quantum computer. --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic Cluster-State QC > Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons that have been... - Published: 2023-10-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-cluster-state/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons (particles of light) that have been prepared in a highly entangled state known as a cluster state. It falls under the paradigm of measurement-based quantum computing (MBQC), often called the one-way quantum computer. In this scheme, a large entangled resource state (the photonic cluster state) is generated first, and then the computation is carried out by performing a sequence of single-qubit measurements on the individual photons. What It IsHow It Differs From Photonic Quantum ComputingKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsGate-Based (Circuit) Model vs. One-Way (Cluster) ModelAdiabatic/Annealing Model vs. One-Way ModelCurrent Development StatusScaling Up Cluster StatesIntegrated Photonics and On-Chip ProcessorsApproaches of Major Industry PlayersAdvantagesRoom-Temperature OperationLow Decoherence and High StabilityNatural Networking and DistributionUltra-Fast Operations and ParallelismScalability via Modular and Mass-Manufacturable ComponentsCompatibility with Fault-Tolerant SchemesDisadvantagesProbabilistic Entanglement and Photon SourcesPhoton LossComplexity of Large-Scale Cluster CreationDetection and Feedforward LatencyImpact on CybersecurityEnhancing Quantum Cryptography (QKD and beyond)Threat to Classical CryptographyPost-Quantum and Quantum-Resistant MeasuresBlind Quantum Computing (Secure Delegation)Security of the Quantum Computer ItselfFuture OutlookTimeline to a Fault-Tolerant Photonic Quantum ComputerExpected Breakthroughs RequiredCommercial Viability and ApplicationsRole in Quantum Networks and Hybrid Architectures(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons (particles of light) that have been prepared in a highly entangled state known as a cluster state. It falls under the paradigm of measurement-based quantum computing (MBQC), often called the one-way quantum computer​. In this scheme, a large entangled resource state (the photonic cluster state) is generated first, and then the computation is carried out by performing a sequence of single-qubit measurements on the individual photons. The cluster state’s entanglement serves as the “fuel” for the computation, and it is gradually consumed as measurements proceed – hence the name “one-way” (the entangled resource is used up and cannot be reused)​. Each photon is measured in a particular basis chosen according to the algorithm’s needs, and those measurements drive the quantum computation. This approach differs fundamentally from the traditional gate-based model of quantum computing. In a gate-based (circuit) model, one applies a series of unitary quantum logic gates (such as CNOTs, Hadamards, etc. ) directly to the qubits... --- ### Over 1,000 Controllable Atomic Qubits Achieved > Over 1,000 controllable atomic qubits in one single plane achieved by researchers from TU Darmstadt in Germany. As published in arXiv for now... - Published: 2023-10-28 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/1000-atomic-qubits/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe In a research article just published on the arXiv preprint server the research team from TU Darmstadt in Germany reports on the world’s first successful experiment to realise a quantum-processing architecture that contains more than 1,000 atomic qubits in one single plane. The researchers used a novel method of “quantum bit supercharging” that enabled researchers to overcome the limitations imposed by the performance of lasers on the number of usable qubits. By implementing this method, 1305 single-atom qubits were successfully loaded into a quantum array with 3,000 trap sites and reassembled into defect-free target structures containing up to 441 qubits. Utilizing several laser sources in parallel, this approach addressed what was previously considered to be an insurmountable technological barriers. The paper further outlines how increasing the number of laser sources could enable the use of 10,000 qubits and beyond in the coming years. For many applications, 1,000 qubits is regarded as the threshold value at which the efficiency boost promised by quantum computers can be demonstrated, i. e. the threshold to achieving quantum supremacy. The full paper is available on the arXiv preprint server here: https://arxiv. org/abs/2310. 09191 --- ### Quantum Memories in Quantum Networking and Computing > Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties... - Published: 2023-10-24 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-memories/ - Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties. In essence, a quantum memory is the quantum-mechanical analog of classical computer memory or RAM​. Introduction to Quantum MemoriesWhy Quantum Memories are EssentialChallenges in Quantum MemoryTypes of Quantum Memory TechnologiesTrapped Ion and Atomic Ensemble MemoriesSolid-State Quantum MemoriesHybrid ApproachesMathematical Models and EquationsCurrent Research and DevelopmentsImplications for Quantum Networks and CybersecurityFuture Outlook and Open QuestionsIntroduction to Quantum Memories Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties. In essence, a quantum memory is the quantum-mechanical analog of classical computer memory or RAM​. However, unlike a classical memory which holds definite binary values (0 or 1), a quantum memory preserves a quantum state – which can be a superposition of 0 and 1 at the same time​. This means the qubit stored in memory can exist in multiple states simultaneously (a property known as quantum superposition), or even be entangled with other qubits, until a measurement is made. The key requirement is that the memory maintain quantum coherence, i. e. the delicate phase relationships of the state, for as long as needed without decoherence (loss of quantum information). Maintaining coherence in a memory is challenging because any interaction with the environment can cause decoherence, collapsing the superposition. A good quantum memory isolates the qubit from noise, so the quantum information remains intact over time​. In an ideal scenario, a quantum memory would store qubits indefinitely without decoherence, functioning much like an error-free hard drive for quantum states. In practice, current quantum memories are far more fragile and short-lived than classical storage – they are “fragile and error-prone” compared to conventional memory​. Reading or measuring the stored qubit will disturb it (due to the observer effect), so the data can typically only be read out once before the quantum state collapses to a classical result​. Despite these challenges, quantum memories are crucial components in quantum computers and communication systems,... --- ### Quantum LiDAR vs. Quantum Radar > Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology... - Published: 2023-10-18 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-lidar-quantum-radar/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology and likely timelines: expect to hear more about quantum LiDAR in commercial products soon, while quantum radar will continue to be a strategic project for defense and require further breakthroughs to reach its full promise. Both, however, underscore the transformative power of quantum technology. As these sensors evolve, they could redefine how we perceive the world, achieving what was once thought impossible – like spotting the “invisible” stealth plane, or navigating a pitch-black, foggy road with the same confidence as a clear day. IntroductionWhat is Quantum LiDAR? Key Differences Between Quantum Radar and Quantum LiDARUse Cases and Market ApplicationsWho is Leading the Research and Development? Challenges and Feasibility of DeploymentConclusion and Future OutlookIntroduction Not long ago, I wrote about the promise of quantum radar, a topic that caught my interest due to its military applications and my defense technology background. Quantum radar has generated buzz for its potential to detect stealth aircraft and resist jamming – naturally drawing attention from defense circles. However, as exciting as it sounds, many readers (and even some tech marketers) have been left confused about how quantum radar differs from quantum LiDAR. Are they the same thing under different names, or fundamentally different technologies? In reality, while both leverage quantum physics to improve detection, they operate on different principles and frequency regimes, leading to distinct strengths and use cases. So let me try and clear up the confusion. What is Quantum LiDAR? Imagine a pair of photons (light particles) that are mysteriously connected – a change to one is instantly reflected in the other. This is the spooky phenomenon of quantum entanglement, and it’s at the heart of quantum LiDAR. In a quantum LiDAR system, entangled or other non-classical states of light (like squeezed light) are used to probe the environment. Conceptually, it works a bit like having two linked flashlights: you send one flashlight beam out toward a target (this is the “signal” photon), while you keep its entangled twin (the “idler” photon) at your receiver. When the signal photon hits an object and bounces back, it will be carrying only a very tiny, noisy reflection – so faint it might be impossible to distinguish from background noise using normal methods. But because that returning photon is still quantum-correlated with its twin, the system can compare notes... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Ion Trap and Neutral Atom MBQC > Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms... - Published: 2023-10-18 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/ion-trap-neutral-atom-mbqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms – to realize this model. In a trapped-ion MBQC, a string of ions (charged atoms) is confined and entangled via electromagnetic fields and laser pulses. The ions’ internal states serve as qubits that can be entangled pairwise or globally using multi-ion gate operations, preparing a cluster state. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksMechanics of MBQC in Ion TrapsMechanics in Neutral Atom SystemsHow measurements drive computationComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC) – often called the one-way quantum computer – is a model of quantum computation where a pre-prepared entangled resource state is consumed by sequential measurements to perform a computation​. Instead of applying a series of unitary logic gates as in the traditional circuit model, MBQC begins by creating a highly entangled cluster state (a specific multi-qubit entangled state, usually a lattice or graph of qubits)​. Computation proceeds by performing single-qubit measurements on the cluster; these measurements (in chosen bases) drive the quantum logic, with the entanglement causing the measurement outcomes to enact effective gate operations on the remaining unmeasured qubits​. Importantly, the order and basis of later measurements can depend on the results of earlier ones (a process called feed-forward), ensuring that despite the inherent randomness of quantum measurement, the overall computation yields a deterministic result​​. The cluster state is “used up” by these measurements – hence one-way, since qubits cannot be reused after measurement​. Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms – to realize this model. In a trapped-ion MBQC, a string of ions (charged atoms) is confined and entangled via electromagnetic fields and laser pulses. The ions’ internal states serve as qubits that can be entangled pairwise or globally using multi-ion gate operations, preparing a cluster state. The computation then unfolds by measuring individual ions’ states one by one with lasers and collecting fluorescence, with each measurement’s basis and timing chosen according to previous outcomes​. In a... --- ### Jiuzhang 3.0: China’s Photonic Quantum Computer > Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons... - Published: 2023-10-14 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-3/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons in a boson sampling experiment​. Unveiled in October 2023 by a team led by renowned physicist Pan Jianwei, Jiuzhang 3.0 pushes the boundaries of photonic quantum computing with a demonstration that is 10 quadrillion times faster at solving a Gaussian boson sampling problem than the fastest classical supercomputers​. This milestone firmly advances the frontier of quantum computational advantage in photonics, outpacing both the team’s earlier machines and rival systems worldwide. A 255-Photon Quantum Advantage DemonstrationFrom Jiuzhang 1. 0 to 3. 0: What’s New and How It ComparesWhy It Matters in the Quantum Computing LandscapeChinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3. 0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons in a boson sampling experiment​. Unveiled in October 2023 by a team led by renowned physicist Pan Jianwei, Jiuzhang 3. 0 pushes the boundaries of photonic quantum computing with a demonstration that is 10 quadrillion times faster at solving a Gaussian boson sampling problem than the fastest classical supercomputers​. Pre-print of the related paper is here: "Gaussian Boson Sampling with Pseudo-Photon-Number Resolving Detectors and Quantum Computational Advantage". This milestone firmly advances the frontier of quantum computational advantage in photonics, outpacing both the team’s earlier machines and rival systems worldwide. A 255-Photon Quantum Advantage Demonstration Boson sampling – specifically Gaussian boson sampling (GBS) – was the chosen benchmark task for Jiuzhang 3. 0’s feat. GBS is a specialized but classically intractable problem often used to showcase quantum speedups​. In essence, it involves sending many photons through a complex interferometer and sampling the outcome distribution, a task that becomes exponentially harder as more photons are involved. Jiuzhang 3. 0 registered 255 photon detection events, an unprecedented scale for this experiment​. Each additional photon roughly doubles the complexity of boson sampling, so moving from previous 113-photon tests to 255 photons represents an enormous leap in computational challenge​. By one estimate, generating a single output sample from Jiuzhang 3. 0’s distribution on the world’s top supercomputer (Frontier) would take around 600 years, whereas Jiuzhang 3. 0 produces that sample in about 1. 2 microseconds​. In fact, the most complex outputs from Jiuzhang 3. 0 would take on the order of 1010 years on Frontier to simulate exactly​ – effectively forever... --- ### Quantum Computing Breakthrough Achieved with Neutral-Atoms > Researchers from Harvard, MIT and QuEra have achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by successfully implementing... - Published: 2023-10-12 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/neutral-atom-breakthrough/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Researchers from Harvard, MIT and QuEra have achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by successfully implementing high-fidelity parallel entangling gates on a neutral-atom quantum computer. This advancement, detailed in a recent study published in Nature, allows for the operation of two-qubit controlled phase gates with a remarkable 99. 5% fidelity on up to 60 atoms simultaneously. This surpasses the threshold required for practical quantum error correction, paving the way for more robust and scalable quantum computing systems. The technology utilizes a sophisticated method of optimal control along with improvements in atom cooling and excitation, setting a new standard in the field of quantum information processing. --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Energy & Utilities > Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation... - Published: 2023-10-11 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-energy-utilities/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Energy & Utilities Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation at scales classical computers cannot handle. For example, routing power through a grid with thousands of control decisions or modeling the chemistry inside a battery are tasks that overwhelm today’s fastest supercomputers. Quantum computers leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to examine a vast number of configurations simultaneously, potentially delivering solutions faster or more accurately. The result could be more efficient energy distribution, smarter storage solutions, and accelerated innovation in clean energy technology. IntroductionCurrent DevelopmentsIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Optimization for Power GridsEnergy Storage & Battery InnovationQuantum Computing for Renewable EnergyQuantum-Assisted Energy Market ForecastingCarbon Capture & Climate SolutionsQuantum Cryptography in Energy SecurityThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction The energy and utilities sector is grappling with unprecedented complexity—from integrating variable renewable power to managing sprawling smart grids. Classical computing, which has served the industry for decades, is now straining to meet these demands​. In contrast, quantum computing offers a fundamentally new approach, harnessing quantum bits (qubits) that can explore countless possibilities in parallel. This paradigm shift holds immense promise for solving “unsolvable” problems in energy, from optimizing grid operations to simulating novel materials that boost efficiency. In short, quantum computing’s ability to handle exponential complexity can unlock insights and optimizations beyond classical limits, a potential game-changer for power and utilities​. Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation at scales classical computers cannot handle. For example, routing power through a grid with thousands of control decisions or modeling the chemistry inside a battery are tasks that overwhelm today’s fastest supercomputers. Quantum computers leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to examine a vast number of configurations simultaneously, potentially delivering solutions faster or more accurately. The result could be more efficient energy distribution, smarter storage solutions, and accelerated innovation in clean energy technology. As one industry expert put it, quantum computing isn’t just about raw speed—it’s about tackling problems that were previously intractable, making it a critical tool for the future of energy and utilities. Current Developments Recent years have seen a surge of research initiatives and industry investments at the intersection of quantum computing and energy. Major energy companies and utilities are partnering with quantum tech firms and labs to explore practical use... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Superconducting Qubits > Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction... - Published: 2023-10-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/superconducting-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction – a sandwich of two superconductors separated by a thin insulator which allows tunneling of Cooper pairs. When cooled to extremely low temperatures (≈10–20 millikelvin), these circuits exhibit quantized energy levels that can serve as the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states of a qubit​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksJosephson Junctions as Non-Linear ElementsSuperconducting Qubit TypesCoupling Mechanisms and Microwave ResonatorsCoherence Times and Noise MitigationGate FidelitiesComparison to Other ParadigmsSuperconducting vs. Trapped IonsSuperconducting vs. Photonic QubitsSuperconducting vs. Silicon Spin QubitsCurrent Development StatusQubit Count and Hardware RoadmapsQuantum Volume and PerformanceAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityIndustry Use CasesBroader Technological ImpactsFuture OutlookConclusion(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Superconducting qubits are quantum bits implemented using superconducting electrical circuits cooled to extremely low temperatures. They behave as artificial atoms with quantized energy levels: the two lowest energy states (ground and first excited state) serve as the qubit’s 0 and 1 states​​. These circuits often consist of an inductor and capacitor (an LC oscillator) made from superconducting materials (like aluminum, niobium, or tantalum) connected by a Josephson junction – a non-linear element that introduces anharmonicity. The anharmonic energy spectrum is crucial, as it ensures only two levels act as the qubit (preventing unintended excitation of higher levels). Superconductivity (achieved by cooling devices to ~10 mK in dilution refrigerators) grants zero electrical resistance, so currents can flow without dissipating energy​​. This allows quantum coherence to be preserved in the circuit, a fundamental requirement for quantum computing. Superconducting qubits are a leading approach in modern quantum computing. Tech giants and research labs worldwide have adopted this platform – e. g. IBM, Google, Rigetti, and others have built quantum chips using superconducting qubits​. The approach has rapidly progressed from a few qubits to tens of qubits over the past two decades. In 2019, Google’s 53-qubit superconducting processor famously achieved quantum supremacy, performing in 200 seconds a task that was estimated to take 10,000 years on a classical supercomputer​. This milestone highlighted the relevance of superconducting qubits: they have enabled some of the largest quantum processors to... --- ### Quantum Use Cases in Pharma & Biotech > Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharma and biotech industries. Its ability to tackle problems... - Published: 2023-10-09 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-use-cases-pharma-biotech/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharmaceuticals and biotechnology industries. Its ability to tackle problems of staggering complexity – whether simulating the quantum behavior of drug molecules, analyzing massive genomic datasets for personalized medicine, or optimizing the myriad decisions in R&D and supply chains – offers a new computational paradigm for an innovation-hungry sector. We have seen that even in its nascent state, quantum technology is already making waves: early experiments have accelerated molecular discovery, quantum sensors are breaking new ground in biomedical imaging​, and companies big and small are gearing up through partnerships and pilot projects to be part of this coming revolution​​. IntroductionCurrent Developments Industry-Specific Use Cases Drug Discovery and Molecular Simulations Personalized Medicine and Genomic Analysis Quantum-Enhanced AI and Machine Learning for Healthcare Optimization of Clinical Trials and Supply Chain Logistics Quantum Sensing for Bioimaging and Diagnostics The Arrival of Universal Quantum Computing Sector Preparation & Responses Challenges and Risks Conclusion Introduction ​Quantum computing harnesses the counterintuitive principles of quantum mechanics to process information in ways that classical computers cannot. Unlike classical bits, quantum bits (qubits) can exist in superposition (multiple states at once) and become entangled, allowing quantum computers to evaluate many possibilities simultaneously. This capability gives quantum computers the potential to solve complex, multi-variable problems exponentially faster than conventional machines​. In the pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sectors – where discovery and innovation often hinge on untangling extremely complex molecular interactions and massive biological datasets – such computing power is a game-changer. Pharma companies spend up to 15% of sales on R&D​, yet many biological problems (from protein folding to drug-target interactions) are so complex that classical algorithms struggle with accuracy and speed​. Quantum computing promises to push past those limits, enabling more precise simulations and data analyses that could revolutionize drug development and healthcare delivery. Industry estimates suggest the life sciences and chemistry fields alone could reap over $1. 3 trillion in value by 2035 from quantum technologies​, underscoring why quantum computing is capturing the imagination of pharmaceutical and biotech leaders worldwide. Quantum computing matters for pharma and biotech because at its core, medicine is an information science dealing with inherently quantum systems. Molecules, proteins, and biochemical reactions operate under quantum physics – and thus a quantum computer can, in principle, model these with far greater fidelity​. This means researchers might simulate drug molecules and their behavior in the body with unprecedented accuracy, potentially predicting efficacy and side effects before a lab experiment is ever done. Beyond drug chemistry, quantum computers’... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Holonomic (Geometric Phase) QC > Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum - Published: 2023-10-06 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/holonomic-geometric-phase/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum logic operations. In a holonomic gate, the quantum state is manipulated by adiabatically (or sometimes non-adiabatically) moving the system’s parameters along a closed loop in parameter space, causing the state to acquire a geometric phase or holonomy. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksGeometric Phases and HolonomiesPhysical Implementations in Different Qubit SystemsComparison to Other ParadigmsHolonomic vs. Standard Gate Model (Circuit Model)Holonomic vs. Adiabatic Quantum ComputingHolonomic vs. Topological Quantum ComputingCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Holonomic Quantum ComputingDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum logic operations. In a holonomic gate, the quantum state is manipulated by adiabatically (or sometimes non-adiabatically) moving the system’s parameters along a closed loop in parameter space, causing the state to acquire a geometric phase or holonomy. This phase depends only on the path taken in the parameter space—not on the speed or duration of traversal—so the resulting operation is largely determined by the geometry of the evolution rather than its timing​. In essence, the idea is to encode qubit states in certain subspaces (often degenerate energy levels) and implement quantum gates by looping the system through configurations such that when it returns to the starting point, the qubit state has undergone a desired unitary transformation (the holonomy). This is fundamentally different from conventional quantum gates that rely on dynamic evolution (accumulating ordinary time-dependent phase from applied pulses)​. The geometric phase at the heart of holonomic computing was first identified by Sir Michael Berry in 1984. Berry showed that when a quantum system’s Hamiltonian is changed slowly (adiabatically) and brought back to its initial form, the wavefunction gains a phase factor determined by the geometry of the path taken through parameter space. This Berry’s phase is a global, path-dependent property and is insensitive to small errors in timing or field strength, since it depends only on the overall... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic QC > Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree... - Published: 2023-10-06 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree of freedom of a single photon, such as its polarization (horizontal = |0⟩, vertical = |1⟩), or its presence/absence in a given mode (occupation number basis: no photon = |0⟩, one photon = |1⟩ in a mode), or time-bin (photon arriving early vs late). Photons are appealing qubits because they travel at the speed of light, have very low environmental interaction (hence can maintain coherence over long distances, which is why photons are used in quantum communication), and operate at room temperature. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree of freedom of a single photon, such as its polarization (horizontal = |0⟩, vertical = |1⟩), or its presence/absence in a given mode (occupation number basis: no photon = |0⟩, one photon = |1⟩ in a mode), or time-bin (photon arriving early vs late). Photons are appealing qubits because they travel at the speed of light, have very low environmental interaction (hence can maintain coherence over long distances, which is why photons are used in quantum communication), and operate at room temperature. Optical quantum computing paradigms generally involve manipulating photons with beam splitters, phase shifters, and optical nonlinearities to enact quantum gates. However, photons do not naturally interact with each other (two photons can pass through each other without effect), which makes two-qubit gates challenging. The main approach to achieve effective interactions is to use measurement-induced nonlinearity: employing detectors and additional photons (ancilla) to create entanglement probabilistically, or using special materials where photons interact (like Rydberg atomic ensembles or Kerr media, though these are less developed). The field really took off after 2001, when the KLM protocol (Knill, Laflamme, Milburn) showed that scalable quantum computing with only linear optics and photon detection is possible in principle, albeit with high resource overhead​. Key Academic Papers “A scheme for efficient quantum computation with linear optics” by Knill, Laflamme, and Milburn (Nature, 2001) is the landmark paper proving that photons, even with only beam splitters and detectors (i. e. linear optics), can perform universal quantum computing given sufficient ancilla photons and... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Trapped-Ion QC > Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - Published: 2023-10-05 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/trapped-ion-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. Trapped ions are often called “nature’s qubits” because every ion of a given isotope is identical, and they have naturally long coherence times. This paradigm was one of the earliest proposed for quantum computing, with Ignacio Cirac and Peter Zoller’s famous 1995 paper outlining how to do a CNOT gate with trapped ions via a shared phonon mode​. Key Academic Papers “Quantum computations with cold trapped ions” by J. I. Cirac and P. Zoller (Physical Review Letters, 1995) is the seminal proposal that showed a theoretically simple way to achieve a universal two-qubit gate in an ion trap​. They proposed using two internal levels of each ion as qubit states and the collective quantized motion of ions in the trap as a “data bus” to mediate interactions​. Specifically, by laser-cooling a string of ions to near the motional ground state, and then using laser pulses that couple an ion’s internal state to the motion (so-called sideband transitions), one can entangle any pair of ions. The Cirac-Zoller gate uses the first ion’s internal state to excite a shared vibrational quantum if in |1⟩, then flips the second ion conditioned on the vibrational excitation, and finally removes the... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Adiabatic Topological QC (ATQC) > Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum... - Published: 2023-10-04 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/adiabatic-topological/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum computing. In essence, ATQC uses slow, continuous changes in a quantum system’s Hamiltonian (an adiabatic evolution) to perform computations, while encoding information in topologically protected states for inherent error resistance. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum computing. In essence, ATQC uses slow, continuous changes in a quantum system’s Hamiltonian (an adiabatic evolution) to perform computations, while encoding information in topologically protected states for inherent error resistance. The idea is to harness the robustness of topological qubits (which are naturally immune to certain local errors) and the flexibility of the adiabatic model to execute quantum algorithms. By doing so, ATQC aims to achieve universal quantum computing in a way that is intrinsically fault-tolerant – meaning the quantum information is less prone to decoherence and errors throughout the computation​. This approach is significant because one of the biggest challenges in quantum computing is error correction: traditional quantum circuits require extensive active error correction, whereas topological schemes like ATQC promise error-resilient computation with far less overhead​. In ATQC, quantum bits (qubits) are typically encoded in the degenerate ground state of a specially designed many-body system – often inspired by topological quantum error-correcting codes (such as Kitaev’s surface code or color codes). The system’s Hamiltonian has a protected ground space where all ground states are separated from excited states by an energy gap​. Quantum operations are carried out by slowly deforming this Hamiltonian – for example, by creating, moving, or merging topological features (like quasiparticles or “holes” in the code) – in an adiabatic fashion. If this deformation is done sufficiently slowly relative to the energy gap, the system stays in the ground state manifold (up to phase factors) throughout the process. The result is that a desired quantum gate is... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Neuromorphic QC (NQC) > Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing... - Published: 2023-10-03 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/neuromorphic-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum AI, Quantum Computing Paradigms Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing: neuromorphic computing and quantum computing. Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the architecture of the human brain – it uses networks of artificial neurons and synapses (often implemented in specialized hardware) to process information in a highly parallel and energy-efficient way, much like brains do. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksQuantum Neural Networks (Parametrized Quantum Circuits)Synaptic Quantum Circuits (Quantum Memristors and Nonlinear Elements)Quantum Reservoirs and Oscillator NetworksComparison to Other ParadigmsVersus Classical Neuromorphic ComputingVersus Gate-Based Quantum ComputingVersus Quantum-Inspired Machine LearningCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Neuromorphic Quantum ComputingDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing: neuromorphic computing and quantum computing. Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the architecture of the human brain – it uses networks of artificial neurons and synapses (often implemented in specialized hardware) to process information in a highly parallel and energy-efficient way, much like brains do. Quantum computing, on the other hand, uses quantum-mechanical phenomena (such as qubits that can exist in superposition of states and become entangled) to perform computations that are infeasible for classical computers. Neuromorphic quantum computing aims to integrate these principles, leveraging brain-like neural network structures implemented on quantum hardware​. In simple terms, it envisions quantum neural networks – computational networks that behave like neural nets but operate using quantum signals. By fusing the two fields, NQC creates a new computational model that is neither purely classical neuromorphic nor a standard gate-based quantum computer. Instead, it physically realizes neural network operations through quantum processes​. For example, an NQC system might use qubits, quantum oscillators, or other quantum elements that function analogously to neurons and synapses. This combination is thought to harness the best of both worlds: the adaptive, learning-oriented nature of neural networks and the exponential parallelism of quantum mechanics. In fact, a quantum system can store and process information in a tremendously high-dimensional state space; using quantum states to represent neural network activity could provide an exponential... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Topological QC > Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees... - Published: 2023-10-03 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/topological-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees of freedom, and to perform quantum gates by braiding or otherwise manipulating these topological objects. The central promise of topological QC is built-in error protection: information stored in a topological form is inherently protected from local noise by global properties (similar to how a knot’s existence doesn’t depend on the exact rope configuration, only on its topological class). What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s PursuingQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategoryMajorana QubitsFibonacci Anyons(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees of freedom, and to perform quantum gates by braiding or otherwise manipulating these topological objects. The central promise of topological QC is built-in error protection: information stored in a topological form is inherently protected from local noise by global properties (similar to how a knot’s existence doesn’t depend on the exact rope configuration, only on its topological class). In more concrete terms, topological quantum computing often refers to using non-Abelian anyons – quasiparticles that can occur in certain two-dimensional systems – as carriers of quantum information. Unlike ordinary fermions or bosons, when you exchange (braid) non-Abelian anyons, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation that depends only on the topological class of the braiding path, not on the details of how it’s carried out. This unitary can serve as a quantum gate. Because it’s topologically defined, small perturbations or noise that do not alter the braid’s topology do not cause errors in the quantum information. Essentially, as long as the anyons are kept far apart and braiding is done without them coming too close (which could cause them to annihilate or interact non-topologically), the computation is resistant to local disturbances​. A leading candidate for non-Abelian anyons are Majorana zero modes (which are quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles) in topological superconductors. These Majorana modes are expected to exhibit so-called Ising anyon statistics (a type of non-Abelian statistics). In a typical picture, one might have a pair of Majorana zero modes (MZMs) that... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Adiabatic QC (AQC) > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics... - Published: 2023-10-02 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/adiabatic-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics. It generalizes the idea of quantum annealing beyond just optimization. In AQC, one encodes the solution of an arbitrary computation in the ground state of some problem Hamiltonian $H_{\text{problem}}$. Instead of applying discrete gates, one evolves the quantum state continuously under a time-dependent Hamiltonian $H(t)$ from an initial easy state to the final state that encodes the answer. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison to Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics. It generalizes the idea of quantum annealing beyond just optimization. In AQC, one encodes the solution of an arbitrary computation in the ground state of some problem Hamiltonian $$H_{\text{problem}}$$. Instead of applying discrete gates, one evolves the quantum state continuously under a time-dependent Hamiltonian $$H(t)$$ from an initial easy state to the final state that encodes the answer. If the evolution is slow enough (adiabatic), the system stays in the instantaneous ground state throughout, thus ending in the ground state of $$H_{\text{problem}}$$, which yields the solution. Mathematically, the setup is similar to QA: one prepares the system in the ground state of a simple Hamiltonian $$H(0) = H_{\text{initial}}$$ (e. g. a strong transverse field whose ground state is $$|+... +\rangle$$). Then $$H(t)$$ is varied smoothly to $$H(T) = H_{\text{problem}}$$ over total time $$T$$. The adiabatic theorem guarantees that if $$T$$ is large compared to $$\frac{1}{g_{\min}^2}$$ (where $$g_{\min}$$ is the minimum energy gap between ground state and first excited state during the evolution), the system will end in the ground state of $$H_{\text{problem}}$$ with high fidelity. In essence, computation is achieved by slow deformation of the Hamiltonian rather than sequences of gates. Importantly, any quantum algorithm (in the circuit model) can be translated into an adiabatic process. This was proven in a landmark result by Aharonov et al. (2004). They described an efficient mapping whereby an arbitrary quantum circuit of $$L$$ gates is converted into a certain $$H_{\text{problem}}$$ whose ground state encodes the circuit’s output, and the adiabatic evolution steers the computer into that ground... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors & Defects > One well-known example for spin-qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom... - Published: 2023-10-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/spin-qubits-defects/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms In addition to silicon, spin qubits can be realized in other solid-state systems. One well-known example is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom next to a vacancy in the carbon lattice creates an electronic spin-1 system that can be used as qubit. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It Works (NV Center)How It Works (Quantum Dot in GaAs/Others)How It Works (Hole Qubits)Comparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development Status (NV and Defects)Current Status (Quantum Dot Spins in III-V)Advantages (NV/defects)DisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook (NV/Defects)Future Outlook (Quantum Dot & Alternative Spins)(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) (Note: There is some overlap with silicon-based qubits, but here we include other spin-qubit implementations: in III-V semiconductor quantum dots, in diamond NV centers, etc. , highlighting approaches outside silicon or in “exotic” materials. ) What It Is In addition to silicon, spin qubits can be realized in other solid-state systems. One well-known example is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom next to a vacancy in the carbon lattice creates an electronic spin-1 system that can be used as qubit (often using the $$m_s=0$$ and $$m_s=+1$$ sublevels as |0⟩ and |1⟩). NV centers have the unique ability to be controlled and read out even at room temperature by optical means (they fluoresce bright or dim depending on spin state under green laser excitation). They also have a nuclear spin (like the N’s nuclear spin) that can serve as auxiliary qubits. NV centers and similar defects (like silicon vacancy in diamond, divacancies and single silicon carbide defects, etc. ) are pursued for quantum networking (as single-photon sources) and for quantum computing nodes (e. g. , small registers of a few spins in a diamond that can network with others via photons). Another example: Quantum dots in III-V semiconductors (GaAs, InAs, etc. ) – historically, the first two-qubit spin gate was in GaAs double quantum dots (Petta et al. 2005 did a SWAP gate). GaAs electron spins have coherence limited by nuclear spins (Ga and... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Silicon-Based Qubits > Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS... - Published: 2023-10-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/silicon-based-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS fabrication infrastructure. The most common silicon qubit implementations are spin qubits – using the spin of an electron or the spin of an atomic nucleus embedded in silicon as a qubit. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksQuantum Dot SpinsDonor SpinsHole spin qubitsTopological in Silicon? Comparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact On CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS fabrication infrastructure. The most common silicon qubit implementations are spin qubits – using the spin of an electron or the spin of an atomic nucleus embedded in silicon as a qubit. Two prominent examples are: (1) Quantum dot spin qubits – single electrons confined in transistor-like silicon quantum dot structures, where the electron’s spin-up vs spin-down (relative to a magnetic field) represents |0⟩ vs |1⟩; (2) Donor spin qubits – using dopant atoms (like a phosphorus atom substituting a silicon atom in the lattice) whose extra electron (or nuclear spin) serves as a qubit. Silicon is attractive because it’s the foundation of the microelectronics industry – billions of nanoscale transistors are made with ultra-high precision on silicon wafers, so if qubits can be made in silicon, one could in principle scale using similar processes. Moreover, isotopically purified silicon (Si-28) is a very clean environment with zero nuclear spins (since Si-28 has none), leading to extremely long spin coherence times for electron and nuclear spins (since they’re not disturbed by fluctuating nuclear spin noise)​. This approach is sometimes called “silicon quantum dot computing” or “silicon spintronics for quantum”. Key Academic Papers A foundational proposal was by Bruce Kane (1998): “A silicon-based nuclear spin quantum computer. " Kane’s paper outlined how donor atoms (like phosphorus) in silicon could be used to realize qubits (nuclear spins of P donors) and coupled via the electrostatic interaction modulated by gate electrodes. This sparked the silicon quantum computing field. It suggested using the... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC) > Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is... - Published: 2023-09-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/measurement-based-mbqc/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is driven entirely by measurements on an entangled resource state​. Instead of applying a sequence of unitary gates to a register of qubits, MBQC starts with a highly entangled state of many qubits (typically a cluster state) and then performs single-qubit measurements in a carefully chosen order and basis. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s PursuingQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategoryPhotonic Cluster-State ComputingIon Trap/Neutral Atom Implementations of MBQC(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is driven entirely by measurements on an entangled resource state​. Instead of applying a sequence of unitary gates to a register of qubits, MBQC starts with a highly entangled state of many qubits (typically a cluster state) and then performs single-qubit measurements in a carefully chosen order and basis. The outcomes of these measurements determine the results of the computation, and crucially, they may dictate how later measurements are performed (a concept called feed-forward). Once a qubit is measured, it’s essentially removed (consumed) from the computer—hence “one-way” quantum computing, as the entangled resource is gradually used up. The cluster state is the central resource in MBQC. A cluster state is a specific type of entangled state that can be described on a graph: each vertex is a qubit initialized to $$|+\rangle = (|0\rangle+|1\rangle)/\sqrt{2}$$, and each edge represents applying a controlled-phase gate (CZ) between the two connected qubits. For example, a simple cluster could be a 1D chain of qubits entangled by CZ gates between nearest neighbors, or a 2D lattice of qubits entangled in a grid. In notation, if $$E$$ is the set of edges, a cluster state on graph $$G=(V,E)$$ can be written as: $$∣Φcluster⟩=∏(i,j)∈ECZij  ⨂k∈V∣+⟩k. |\Phi_{\text{cluster}}\rangle = \prod_{(i,j)\in E} CZ_{ij} \;\bigotimes_{k \in V} |+\rangle_k. ∣Φcluster​⟩=∏(i,j)∈E​CZij​⨂k∈V​∣+⟩k​$$. This state has the special property that it is highly entangled and serves as a universal substrate for quantum computation. It’s an eigenstate of certain commuting stabilizers (e. g. , for a 2D cluster, each qubit’s $$X \otimes... --- ### New Coalition Launched to Tackle Post-Quantum Cryptography > The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address... - Published: 2023-09-29 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mitre-coalition/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address the imminent threats posed by quantum computing to current cryptographic systems. The coalition aims to accelerate the development and adoption of quantum-resistant cryptographic solutions, ensuring the security and privacy of data against future quantum attacks. Quantum computers, once fully developed, will have the capability to break existing encryption methods, potentially compromising sensitive information across various sectors. The coalition brings together experts from industry, academia, and government to create robust strategies and technologies that can withstand the power of quantum computing. The coalition will focus on key areas such as developing new cryptographic standards, enhancing public awareness, and promoting best practices for quantum-resistant security. This initiative underscores the growing recognition of the potential risks posed by quantum computing and the need for proactive measures to secure digital systems for the future. For more information, visit the MITRE Corporation’s news release. --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Neutral Atom (Rydberg) QC > Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic... - Published: 2023-09-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/neutral-atom-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic states. A popular approach is to use optical tweezers (focused laser beams) to trap arrays of neutral atoms (like rubidium or cesium). These atoms have internal states (usually hyperfine ground states) that serve as |0⟩ and |1⟩, similar to ion qubits. The key mechanism for entangling neutral atom qubits is to excite atoms to highly excited electronic states called Rydberg states. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison To Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic states. A popular approach is to use optical tweezers (focused laser beams) to trap arrays of neutral atoms (like rubidium or cesium). These atoms have internal states (usually hyperfine ground states) that serve as |0⟩ and |1⟩, similar to ion qubits. The key mechanism for entangling neutral atom qubits is to excite atoms to highly excited electronic states called Rydberg states. Rydberg atoms have extremely large electric dipole moments and interact strongly with each other at distances of a few micrometers, an effect known as Rydberg blockade: an excited Rydberg atom shifts the energy levels of nearby atoms, preventing them from being excited simultaneously​. This blockade can be exploited to create two-qubit gates (like a controlled-Z or controlled-not) between atoms by laser pulses that rely on this “one atom or the other can be excited, but not both” phenomenon​. Neutral atom QC is somewhat a hybrid of ion traps and photonics: atoms are discrete qubits like ions, but they are controlled by lasers and can be arranged in 2D (like pixels) by optical systems. They don’t require charged confinement (so no RF trap electrodes), making it easier to create scalable arrays (hundreds of optical tweezers can be made with spatial light modulators or diffractive optics). Companies like Pasqal (France) and QuEra (USA) are pursuing neutral atom processors; Pasqal has demonstrated 100+ atom analog quantum simulations, and QuEra has a 256-atom analog quantum simulator (focused on quantum annealing/simulation tasks for now). Neutral atoms can be used... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Annealing (QA) > Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum... - Published: 2023-09-25 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-annealing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum tunneling and the adiabatic principle. It's a special case of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC). The idea is to encode a problem (typically an NP-hard optimization) into an energy landscape, where the lowest energy (ground) state corresponds to the optimal solution. A quantum annealer starts in the easily prepared ground state of a simple initial Hamiltonian (energy function) and slowly interpolates to a final Hamiltonian that represents the problem​. If the interpolation (anneal) is slow enough, the system is supposed to remain in its ground state (by the adiabatic theorem) and end up in the problem’s optimal state. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum tunneling and the adiabatic principle. It's a special case of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC). The idea is to encode a problem (typically an NP-hard optimization) into an energy landscape, where the lowest energy (ground) state corresponds to the optimal solution. A quantum annealer starts in the easily prepared ground state of a simple initial Hamiltonian (energy function) and slowly interpolates to a final Hamiltonian that represents the problem​. If the interpolation (anneal) is slow enough, the system is supposed to remain in its ground state (by the adiabatic theorem) and end up in the problem’s optimal state. In practice, quantum annealers like D-Wave’s systems work with a spin-glass model. The problem is formulated as a set of qubits (quantum spins) with programmable interactions. For example, one common formulation is an Ising model or equivalently a quadratic unconstrained binary optimization (QUBO) problem. The Hamiltonian of the final problem might be written as: $$Hproblem  =  ∑i --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Walk QC > Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker"... - Published: 2023-09-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-walk/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker" (such as a particle or an agent) moves step by step in a certain space (like a line or a graph) with some probability distribution. In a quantum walk, the walker instead evolves in a superposition of positions, following the rules of quantum mechanics. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow Quantum Walks WorkComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Quantum WalksDisadvantages and Challenges of Quantum WalksImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker" (such as a particle or an agent) moves step by step in a certain space (like a line or a graph) with some probability distribution. In a quantum walk, the walker instead evolves in a superposition of positions, following the rules of quantum mechanics. This means the walker can effectively take many paths simultaneously, and the paths interfere with each other—some paths reinforcing and others canceling out due to quantum interference​​. As a result, quantum walks can spread or “diffuse” through the space faster and in different patterns than classical random walks, leveraging superposition and entanglement to achieve computational effects beyond classical methods. There are two primary types of quantum walks: discrete-time and continuous-time. In a discrete-time quantum walk, time progresses in steps and the evolution is governed by repeated applications of a unitary "coin toss" and a conditional shift. For example, a common discrete-time quantum walk model uses a qubit coin: at each step a quantum coin is flipped (put into a superposition of “heads” and “tails”), and then the walker moves left or right depending on the coin’s state. This coined discrete walk entangles the coin state with the walker's position, allowing the walker to explore multiple directions at once​. In contrast, a continuous-time quantum walk has no separate coin or time steps; instead the walker’s position evolves according to a continuous Schrödinger equation on a graph. The continuous-time walk is defined by a Hamiltonian (often chosen as the adjacency... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Fibonacci Anyons > Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics... - Published: 2023-09-16 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/fibonacci-anyons/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics beyond bosons or fermions. When two non-Abelian anyons like Fibonacci anyons are exchanged (braided) in space, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation (not just a phase change as with Abelian anyons)​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics beyond bosons or fermions. When two non-Abelian anyons like Fibonacci anyons are exchanged (braided) in space, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation (not just a phase change as with Abelian anyons)​. In a topological quantum computer, information is stored non-locally in the joint state of multiple anyons, and computations are performed by braiding these anyons around each other​. Because the information is encoded in global topological properties, it is inherently protected from small local errors or perturbations​. Fibonacci anyons are especially important in this context because they represent one of the simplest anyon models that is capable of universal quantum computation using braids alone​. A Fibonacci anyon is defined by a particular fusion rule and “golden” quantum dimension that link it to the Fibonacci sequence (hence the name). In the Fibonacci anyon model, there are only two particle types: the trivial vacuum (often denoted 1) and the Fibonacci anyon (often denoted τ). The fusion rules are extremely simple: combining two τ anyons can yield either a single τ or the vacuum, i. e. τ × τ = 1 + τ​. This non-Abelian fusion rule means two τ anyons have two possible outcomes when fused (analogous to two particles fusing into either of two channels). As a result, a set of $$n$$ Fibonacci anyons has a multi-dimensional Hilbert space (with dimension growing as the Fibonacci numbers or roughly the golden ration) suitable for encoding qubits​. Braiding the anyons produces unitary transformations within this space,... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: QA With Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) > Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt... - Published: 2023-09-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/annealing-boost-bang-bang/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt changes in the control parameters – essentially applying bang–bang control to quantum annealing. In control theory, a bang–bang controller is one that switches sharply between extreme values (on/off) rather than varying smoothly​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of “Bang-Bang” AnnealingDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum Annealing (QA) is a quantum optimization process that finds the global minimum of an objective function using quantum fluctuations (such as tunneling)​. It was first conceptualized in the late 1980s as a quantum-inspired algorithm and formulated in its modern form by Kadowaki and Nishimori in 1998​. In QA, a system of qubits is initialized in the ground state of a simple, “driver” Hamiltonian (e. g. a transverse field) and then slowly evolved toward a Hamiltonian encoding the problem to solve. According to the adiabatic theorem, if this evolution is slow enough, the system ideally stays in its ground state, ending in the ground state of the problem Hamiltonian – which corresponds to the optimal solution​. This approach is analogous to classical simulated annealing (which slowly lowers temperature to settle into a low-energy state) but uses quantum tunneling instead of thermal fluctuations to escape local minima​. Indeed, early results showed QA could reach the true ground state (optimal solution) with higher probability than classical annealing on certain problems when using the same schedule​, highlighting its potential advantage. Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt changes in the control parameters – essentially applying bang–bang control to quantum annealing. In control theory, a bang–bang controller is one that switches sharply between extreme values (on/off) rather than varying smoothly​. Translated to quantum annealing, this means the quantum Hamiltonian is driven in a piecewise-constant, on/off fashion rather than via a slow, analog sweep. For example, instead of continuously turning down the transverse field and turning... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Dissipative QC (DQC) > Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics... - Published: 2023-09-13 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/dissipative-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics – in other words, it uses controlled dissipation (interaction with an environment and irreversible processes) as a resource for computing. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Dissipative Quantum ComputingDisadvantages of Dissipative Quantum ComputingImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics – in other words, it uses controlled dissipation (interaction with an environment and irreversible processes) as a resource for computing. In conventional quantum computing, dissipation and decoherence are unwanted because they destroy quantum information. By contrast, DQC intentionally couples qubits to engineered environments so that the loss of energy or information to a reservoir actually drives the quantum system toward a desired outcome​​. Instead of performing a sequence of unitary logic gates on an isolated system, one designs noise processes that “cool” the system into the solution state. The result of the computation is encoded in the steady-state of the quantum system under these dissipative dynamics​. In a DQC process, the quantum state evolution is described by a master equation (often a Lindblad master equation) rather than a simple Schrödinger equation. For a density matrix $$\rho$$, a general Lindblad equation is: $$dρdt=∑kLk ρ Lk†  −  12{Lk†Lk,  ρ},\frac{d\rho}{dt} = \sum_k L_k\,\rho\,L_k^{\dagger} \;-\; \frac{1}{2}\{L_k^{\dagger}L_k,\; \rho\},dtdρ​=∑k​Lk​ρLk†​−21​{Lk†​Lk​,ρ}$$, where $${\cdot,\cdot}$$ is the anti-commutator and the operators $$L_k$$ (Lindblad or “jump” operators) represent couplings to the environment​. By appropriately choosing the set of $${L_k}$$, one can ensure that the unique stationary state of this evolution is the answer to a computation. In essence, the computation is carried out by the system’s natural relaxation: no matter what initial state you prepare, the engineered dissipation will irreversibly drive the system into a particular steady state $$\rho_{\text{ss}}$$ that encodes the solution​. Dissipation that would normally cause errors is turned into a mechanism for error correction and stabilization –... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Majorana Qubits > Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles... - Published: 2023-09-12 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/majorana-qubits/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles. These modes emerge in certain superconducting systems as zero-energy states bound to defects or boundaries. Uniquely, information stored in a pair of Majorana modes is nonlocally encoded – effectively an electron's quantum state is split between two separated locations. This topological encoding makes the qubit highly insensitive to local disturbances​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles. These modes emerge in certain superconducting systems as zero-energy states bound to defects or boundaries. Uniquely, information stored in a pair of Majorana modes is nonlocally encoded – effectively an electron's quantum state is split between two separated locations. This topological encoding makes the qubit highly insensitive to local disturbances​. In other words, Majorana-based qubits are topologically protected: small noise or perturbations cannot easily decohere or destroy the qubit’s state, unlike in conventional qubits. This intrinsic robustness is a primary reason Majorana qubits are of great interest for quantum computing​. Majorana qubits are central to the vision of topological quantum computing. In this paradigm (pioneered by Kitaev and others), quantum gates are carried out by braiding (exchanging) non-Abelian anyons – of which Majorana modes are a prime example​​. Braiding two Majorana particles around one another changes the state of the qubit in a way that depends only on the topological path of the exchange, not on the fine details of how the operation is implemented​. This means the computation is naturally fault-tolerant: as long as the braiding is done without cutting or creating new anyons, the resulting quantum gate is exact. The promise of inherent fault tolerance, combined with expected long coherence times, makes Majorana qubits a highly sought-after building block for scalable quantum computers​. In summary, a Majorana qubit uses pairs of Majorana zero modes to encode a single quantum bit of information in a delocalized, topologically protected way. This approach could enable qubits that remain stable much longer than... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Biological QC > Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations... - Published: 2023-09-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/biological-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations or that we could harness biological processes to implement quantum computing. This paradigm is highly exploratory and not yet realized in any form, lying at the intersection of quantum physics, biology, and computer science. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantages (Hypothetical)DisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations or that we could harness biological processes to implement quantum computing. This paradigm is highly exploratory and not yet realized in any form, lying at the intersection of quantum physics, biology, and computer science. There are two main interpretations: Biology as the computer: Certain processes in living organisms might naturally exploit quantum effects to compute or process information. For example, it has been hypothesized that the brain could be a quantum computer, or that plants perform quantum optimizations in photosynthesis. These ideas suggest that evolution might have stumbled upon quantum mechanisms to enhance functionality (like efficiency of energy transfer or perhaps even consciousness via quantum processes in neurons). Biology-inspired hardware: Using biological materials or biologically derived structures to build quantum computers. For instance, using proteins, DNA, or other biomolecules as qubits or as scaffolds to hold and manipulate qubits. This also covers hybrid approaches where biological systems interface with quantum systems (like a living organism that interacts with a quantum device). At present, no clear evidence exists that any biological system performs non-trivial quantum algorithms. But there are intriguing phenomena: Photosynthetic complexes in certain algae and bacteria show quantum coherence in exciton transfer (energy transfer) at room temperature, which might help them transfer energy more efficiently​. Migratory birds like European robins appear to have a compass mechanism in their eyes that may involve entangled radical pairs (a quantum effect) to sense Earth’s magnetic field – a quantum biological sensor, essentially. The human sense of smell has been theorized (by Luca Turin) to involve quantum tunneling of electrons for... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Boson Sampling QC (Gaussian & Non-Gaussian) > Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution... - Published: 2023-09-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/boson-sampling/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution of indistinguishable bosons (typically photons) that have passed through a passive linear interferometer​. In simpler terms, one prepares multiple photons, sends them through a network of beam splitters and phase shifters (a linear optical circuit), and then measures how many photons exit in each output mode. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksUnderlying Physics and Computation (Non-Gaussian Boson Sampling)Gaussian Boson Sampling (Using Squeezed States)Comparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution of indistinguishable bosons (typically photons) that have passed through a passive linear interferometer​. In simpler terms, one prepares multiple photons, sends them through a network of beam splitters and phase shifters (a linear optical circuit), and then measures how many photons exit in each output mode. The resulting pattern of detection (which output ports registered photons) is a sample from a complicated probability distribution. This distribution is determined by the quantum interference of all the ways bosons can scatter through the network. The task may sound abstract, but it carries deep significance: sampling from this distribution is strongly believed to be classically intractable when the number of photons grows large​. In fact, the mathematical amplitudes for these photon scattering events are given by the permanent of large matrices, a calculation that is #P-hard (extremely difficult for classical computers)​. Scott Aaronson and Alex Arkhipov, who introduced the boson sampling model, showed that if a polynomial-time classical algorithm could simulate boson sampling, it would imply a collapse of the polynomial hierarchy in complexity theory (an unlikely scenario)​. This connection to computational complexity is why boson sampling is seen as a promising path to demonstrate a quantum advantage over classical computers, even though it is not a general-purpose quantum computer​. In essence, boson sampling trades universality for feasibility. It does only one particular type of computation (sampling a bosonic distribution), but it does so with far fewer resources than a... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) > Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information... - Published: 2023-09-09 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-cellular-automata/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information processing happens in many parallel identical cells interacting with neighbors under a uniform rule​. It’s a quantum counterpart to classical cellular automata (like Conway’s Game of Life, but quantum). What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information processing happens in many parallel identical cells interacting with neighbors under a uniform rule​. It’s a quantum counterpart to classical cellular automata (like Conway’s Game of Life, but quantum). In a QCA, you have a grid (lattice) of quantum systems (e. g. qubits on each site), and the entire grid’s state evolves in discrete time steps according to some global unitary $$G$$ that factorizes into local operations. Typically, each cell updates based on its own state and the state of a fixed neighborhood (like nearest neighbors), and the same update rule applies everywhere (translation-invariance)​. Importantly, to maintain causality (no information faster than light), the update rule must be locally unitary and not allow influence to propagate arbitrarily fast (usually, a cell’s state at time $$t+1$$ only depends on information within a finite radius of that cell at time $$t$$)​. In essence, QCA is like a quantum circuit that repeats across space infinitely (or with periodic boundary)​. One time step of a QCA could be seen as one layer of a quantum circuit applied in parallel to many blocks of qubits. For example, a simple 1D QCA might involve an update rule: apply a certain 3-qubit unitary to each triple of neighboring cells (with some scheme to cover the line evenly). Doing that for all triples constitutes one time tick. John von Neumann’s classical cellular automaton concept (1940s) had cells that could do universal computation. The quantum analogy aims for the same: a QCA that can simulate a quantum Turing machine or quantum circuit and... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Time Crystals' Potential QC Use > Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state... - Published: 2023-09-08 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/time-crystals-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state exhibits periodic motion in time. This is analogous to how ordinary crystals break spatial translation symmetry by arranging atoms in a repeating lattice pattern in space. In a time crystal, the system’s constituents oscillate in a regular pattern without drifting toward thermal equilibrium. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow Time Crystals WorkExperimental RealizationsComparison to Other Quantum Computing ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusPotential Advantages in Quantum ComputationDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state exhibits periodic motion in time. This is analogous to how ordinary crystals break spatial translation symmetry by arranging atoms in a repeating lattice pattern in space. In a time crystal, the system’s constituents oscillate in a regular pattern without drifting toward thermal equilibrium​​. In other words, the system cycles through states periodically in time, much like a ticking clock, even in its ground state or steady state. This persistent motion occurs without continuous energy input, evading the normal tendency of systems to equilibrate (seemingly defying entropy increase under the Second Law of Thermodynamics)​​. There are two major categories of time crystals: continuous time crystals and discrete time crystals. A continuous time crystal, as originally envisioned by Frank Wilczek, would break the continuous time-translation symmetry of an isolated, time-independent system – meaning the system’s true ground state is a perpetually oscillating configuration​​. However, it was later shown that such continuous time crystals cannot occur in equilibrium for ordinary short-range interacting systems (more on that in the next section). On the other hand, discrete time crystals (DTCs) occur in periodically driven (Floquet) systems that break the discrete time symmetry of the driving force. In a DTC, the system responds with a period that is an integer multiple of the driving period (often twice the period, i. e. subharmonic oscillation), rather than syncing exactly with the drive​​. Crucially, a discrete time crystal is a non-equilibrium phase of matter – it never... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: DNA-Based QIP > DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer... - Published: 2023-09-06 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/dna-based-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer. This could mean DNA acting as qubits, facilitating quantum interactions, or serving as a structural scaffold for other qubits. It's an intersection of quantum technology with biotechnology and nanotechnology. What It IsKey Academic PapersComparison To Other ParadigmsAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer. This could mean DNA acting as qubits, facilitating quantum interactions, or serving as a structural scaffold for other qubits. It's an intersection of quantum technology with biotechnology and nanotechnology. There are several angles to consider: DNA as Qubits: DNA has specific quantum aspects (like the electrons in the base pairs, or the spin of nuclei in the bases). Some researchers have speculated that the two complementary bases in a pair (A-T or C-G) could form a two-level quantum system that might be manipulated​. For instance, the hydrogen bonds between base pairs could tunnel between configurations (there’s a phenomenon of proton tunneling causing A* (tautomer) pairing with C occasionally). One could imagine encoding 0 and 1 in two conformations of a base pair and using quantum tunneling as operations. A bold proposal by Riera et al. (2021) treated each A-T or C-G pair as a Josephson-like junction where the hydrogen bonds allow a shared proton to quantum tunnel, acting like a phase qubit. They suggested DNA base pairs could behave as superconducting paired elements at very low temperature, which is highly speculative and not experimentally shown. Nuclear Spins in DNA: Every atom in DNA has nuclear spins. Notably, the phosphorus atom in the backbone is spin-1/2 (for the dominant isotope P-31) and could serve as a qubit with relatively long coherence (phosphorus nuclear spins in a solid lattice can have long T1 and T2). Carbon-13 if present (1% naturally) in the bases is spin-1/2. One can envision using these nuclear spins as qubits and the... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: One-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1) > The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing... - Published: 2023-09-05 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/one-clean-qubit-dqc1/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing paradigm where only a single qubit starts in a pure (or “clean”) state while all other qubits are in a completely mixed state​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing paradigm where only a single qubit starts in a pure (or “clean”) state while all other qubits are in a completely mixed state​. In formal terms, the initial density matrix has the form $$ρ0=∣0⟩⟨0∣⊗I/2 n−1\rho_0 = |0\rangle\langle0| \otimes I/2^{\,n-1}ρ0​=∣0⟩⟨0∣⊗I/2n−1$$, meaning one qubit is in a pure $$|0\rangle$$ state and the remaining $$n-1$$ qubits are maximally mixed​. This model was originally motivated by the conditions in high-temperature nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) quantum computers, where preparing a fully pure multi-qubit state is extremely challenging, but obtaining one highly polarized qubit is feasible​. DQC1 asks what computational power is possible in this scenario of almost entirely “dirty” (mixed) qubits. DQC1 was introduced in 1998 by Emanuel Knill and Raymond Laflamme as a surprising demonstration that useful quantum computation could be done with very little initial quantum purity​. They showed that even though this model is less powerful than a standard quantum computer in theory, it can efficiently perform certain tasks for which no efficient classical algorithms are known​. In other words, with only one qubit of the register being clean (quantum-coherent) and all others in random states, the computer can still solve specific problems believed to be classically intractable. This finding established DQC1 as an important paradigm for exploring the minimum quantum resources required for a computational speed-up. It challenges the conventional view that a quantum computer needs all qubits in pure, entangled states – instead, DQC1 suggests that a single clean qubit combined with non-classical correlations among mixed-state qubits can sometimes... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Exotic and Emerging QC > Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare... - Published: 2023-09-04 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/exotic-emerging-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare to mainstream quantum computers, and what implications they might hold for the future. We also introduce each paradigm in turn – from quantum cellular automata and biological quantum computing to holonomic gates and time crystals – explaining each in high-level, non-technical terms. Overview: Why Explore Unconventional Quantum Paradigms? Common Themes Among Emerging ParadigmsComparing Emerging Paradigms to Mainstream Quantum ComputingPotential Implications for the Future of Quantum ComputingA Glimpse at Exotic Quantum Paradigms (Brief Introductions)Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA)Biological Quantum ComputingDNA-Based Quantum Information ProcessingDissipative Quantum ComputingAdiabatic Topological Quantum ComputingBoson Sampling (Gaussian and Non-Gaussian)Quantum Walk ComputingNeuromorphic Quantum ComputingHolonomic (Geometric Phase) Quantum ComputingTime Crystals and Quantum ComputingOne-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1)Quantum Annealing + Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing)Photonic Continuous-Variable (CV) Quantum ComputingQuantum LDPC Codes and Cluster-State ComputingQuantum Cellular Automata in Living CellsHybrid Quantum Computing ArchitecturesEmbracing Speculation: Why Explore These Frontiers? (For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) Quantum computing has thus far been dominated by gate-based (circuit) models and adiabatic/annealing approaches. These mainstream paradigms have achieved milestone demonstrations, yet they face significant challenges in scaling up and dealing with errors. This has motivated researchers to explore a spectrum of unconventional quantum computing approaches that push beyond the standard models. In this survey, I will provide an overview of these “exotic and emerging” paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare to mainstream quantum computers, and what implications they might hold for the future. I'll also introduce each paradigm in turn briefly here and in much more detail in dedicated posts – from quantum cellular automata and biological quantum computing to holonomic gates and time crystals – explaining each in high-level, non-technical terms. Overview: Why Explore Unconventional Quantum Paradigms? Despite rapid progress, today’s quantum computers remain fragile and small-scale, largely limited by decoherence (loss of quantum information due to noise) and hardware complexity​. The gate-based model (quantum circuits of logic gates on qubits) and the adiabatic model (gradually evolving a system’s Hamiltonian, as used in quantum annealers) are two well-established approaches. Each has strengths – gate models... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Photonic Continuous-Variable QC (CVQC) > Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously... - Published: 2023-09-03 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/photonic-continuous-variable/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously varying quantities (like the amplitude or phase of an electromagnetic field) instead of discrete two-level systems (qubits). What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantages of Photonic CVQCDisadvantages and ChallengesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Continuous-variable quantum computing encodes quantum information in continuous degrees of freedom, such as the quadratures of light (analogous to position and momentum), rather than binary quantum bits​​. In a photonic CV system, a quantum mode of the electromagnetic field (often called a qumode) carries information in properties like the amplitude and phase of light. Measuring such a mode can yield a continuous range of outcomes (any real value within some range), unlike a qubit measurement which yields a 0 or 1​. Each photonic mode corresponds to an oscillator with an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, meaning it can theoretically hold more information than a two-dimensional qubit. Photonic systems are a promising platform for CVQC because quantum states of light are relatively accessible and controllable using well-established tools of quantum optics. Lasers can produce coherent states of light (think of a minimal quantum version of a classical electromagnetic wave), and nonlinear optical devices can produce squeezed states, which have reduced quantum uncertainty in one quadrature at the expense of increased uncertainty in the conjugate quadrature. Squeezed light is a key resource for CV quantum information processing, as it enables entanglement between modes and the creation of Gaussian quantum states (states whose Wigner function is Gaussian-shaped)​. In fact, many quantum optics experiments – like the generation of squeezed vacuum or entangled light beams – serve as the foundation for CVQC. Crucially, optical Gaussian operations (those that preserve the Gaussian nature of states, such as beam splitters, phase shifts, and squeezers) are readily implemented with standard optical components​. This makes photonics attractive: we can entangle dozens... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Hybrid QC Architectures > Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems... - Published: 2023-09-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/hybrid-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems with one another (and often with classical systems) to create a more powerful or versatile computer. This can mean hybridizing physical qubit modalities (e.g., using both superconducting qubits and photonic qubits together), or mixing analog and digital quantum methods, or even quantum-classical hybrids where a quantum processor works in tandem with a classical co-processor. What It IsComparisonAdvantagesDisadvantagesCybersecurity ImplicationsWho’s Pursuing(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems with one another (and often with classical systems) to create a more powerful or versatile computer. This can mean hybridizing physical qubit modalities (e. g. , using both superconducting qubits and photonic qubits together), or mixing analog and digital quantum methods, or even quantum-classical hybrids where a quantum processor works in tandem with a classical co-processor. The goal of hybrid architectures is to capitalize on the strengths of each component while mitigating individual weaknesses. Several forms of hybridization include: Heterogeneous Qubit Systems: Having more than one kind of qubit in the same machine. For example, a system where superconducting qubits do fast logic but communicate via optical photons to distant nodes (thus involving both microwave (supercond) and optical (photonic) elements)​. Or a hybrid of trapped ions and superconducting qubits, where ions could serve as long-lived memory qubits and superconductors as processing qubits. Quantum Network of Modules: A distributed quantum computer where each module might be a small quantum processor (like 50 superconducting qubits on a chip, or 50 trapped ions in a trap), and modules are connected by quantum links (optical fibers or free-space photons). This is hybrid in the sense of spatially separated quantum components connected by communication channels. Oxford’s recent demonstration linking two ion trap processors by photonic teleportation is a prime example​. In the future, networks of dozens of modules could act as one large computer. Hybrid of Computing Paradigms: E. g. , combining analog quantum simulation/annealing with digital gates. A specific case is the Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) which uses a parameterized sequence of analog Hamiltonian evolutions... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) & Cluster States > Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints - Published: 2023-09-01 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/quantum-ldpc-cluster-states/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints, analogous to classical LDPC codes. In a Quantum LDPC code (which is typically a stabilizer code), each stabilizer generator (parity-check operator) acts on only a small, fixed number of physical qubits, and each qubit participates in only a few such checks​. What It IsQuantum LDPC CodesCluster StatesKey Academic PapersQuantum LDPC CodesCluster StatesHow It WorksQuantum LDPC Codes – Error Correction MechanicsCluster States – MBQC and Fault-Tolerant ComputingComparison to Other ParadigmsQuantum LDPC vs. Other Quantum Error-Correction MethodsCluster-State MBQC vs. Circuit Model Quantum ComputingCurrent Development StatusQuantum LDPC Codes in Theory and ExperimentCluster States and MBQC in PracticeAdvantagesAdvantages of Quantum LDPC CodesAdvantages of Cluster-State MBQCDisadvantagesDisadvantages and Challenges of Quantum LDPC CodesDisadvantages and Challenges of Cluster-State ComputingImpact on Cybersecurity (if applicable)Broader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum LDPC Codes Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints, analogous to classical LDPC codes. In a Quantum LDPC code (which is typically a stabilizer code), each stabilizer generator (parity-check operator) acts on only a small, fixed number of physical qubits, and each qubit participates in only a few such checks. This sparsity means that as the code size (number of physical qubits $$n$$) grows, the weight of each check and the number of checks per qubit remain bounded by a constant. The role of quantum LDPC codes in quantum error correction (QEC) is to detect and correct errors on quantum bits (qubits) introduced by decoherence and noise, while using relatively few-body interactions for syndrome measurements. By measuring the stabilizers (parity checks) of an LDPC code, one obtains a syndrome that pinpoints error patterns without collapsing the encoded quantum information. The ultimate goal is to preserve logical qubit states reliably, enabling fault-tolerant quantum computation even when the underlying hardware is noisy. Quantum LDPC codes are especially interesting because their sparse structure can allow fast, parallel error syndrome extraction and potentially better error correction performance in certain regimes​. Notably, many known quantum LDPC codes are CSS... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Gate-Based / Universal QC > Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer... - Published: 2023-08-24 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/gate-based-universal-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer. In this model, computations are carried out by applying sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits), analogous to how classical computers use circuits of logic gates on bits. A gate-model quantum computer leverages uniquely quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and interference – to explore a vast computational space in parallel, offering potential speedups for certain problems far beyond classical capabilities​. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksMain Paradigms Under This CategoryComparison to Other Quantum ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusQuantum Error Correction & Fault ToleranceAdvantages of the Gate ModelDisadvantages and ChallengesIndustry Use CasesImpact on CybersecurityThreats to CryptographyDefensive Measures and OpportunitiesFuture OutlookQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategorySuperconducting QubitsTrapped-Ion QubitsPhotonic Quantum ComputingNeutral Atom Quantum Computing (Rydberg Qubits)Silicon-Based Qubits (Quantum Dots & Donors in Silicon)Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors and Defects (NV Centers, Quantum Dots in III-V Materials)(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer. In this model, computations are carried out by applying sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits), analogous to how classical computers use circuits of logic gates on bits. A gate-model quantum computer leverages uniquely quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and interference – to explore a vast computational space in parallel, offering potential speedups for certain problems far beyond classical capabilities​. This paradigm is considered “universal” because an appropriate set of quantum gates can approximate any quantum operation; in theory, a gate-based quantum machine can perform any computation that a quantum Turing machine could, given enough qubits and time​. What It Is Gate-based quantum computing (the circuit model) is a framework where quantum algorithms are expressed as circuits acting on qubits. Each qubit can exist in a superposition of 0 and 1, and multiple qubits can become entangled, enabling complex multi-variable computations. Quantum logic gates – unitary operations like the Pauli-X (NOT), Hadamard, phase rotations, and two-qubit gates like CNOT – manipulate qubit states, and sequences of these gates (quantum circuits) carry out the computation. This mirrors classical circuits but operates under quantum rules. Crucially, a small set of gate types can be... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Annealing (QA) & Adiabatic QC (AQC) > Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve... - Published: 2023-08-21 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/annealing-adiabatic/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve problems. In both approaches, a problem is encoded into a landscape of energy states (a quantum Hamiltonian), and the system is guided to its lowest-energy state which corresponds to the optimal solution​. What It IsCommonalitiesDifferences and BoundariesComparison to Other Quantum Computing ModelsCurrent Research and Industry InterestChallenges and LimitationsPotential Future DirectionsQuantum Computing Paradigms Within This CategoryQuantum Annealing (QA)Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve problems. In both approaches, a problem is encoded into a landscape of energy states (a quantum Hamiltonian), and the system is guided to its lowest-energy state which corresponds to the optimal solution. QA and AQC rely on the quantum adiabatic theorem – the principle that if a system’s Hamiltonian is changed slowly enough and without outside disturbance, the system will remain in its ground (lowest-energy) state​. By starting from a known ground state and evolving to a Hamiltonian that encodes a computational problem, the solution can be “read out” as the final state of the system. These two paradigms are often grouped together because QA can be viewed as a practical implementation or subset of the adiabatic approach. Adiabatic quantum computing is a universal model of quantum computation – it has been proven polynomially equivalent in power to the standard gate-based model (in principle). QA, on the other hand, usually refers to methods and devices (like D-Wave’s quantum processors) that perform this slow-evolution approach specifically for optimization problems. In essence, QA is the “real-world” version of AQC, applying the same fundamental idea under less ideal conditions to tackle tasks like finding the minimum of a complex function​. Both QA and AQC involve harnessing quantum mechanics (such as superposition and tunneling) to navigate complex solution spaces, setting them apart from classical algorithms and making them a distinct category within quantum computing. Commonalities QA and AQC share a... --- ### Quantum Computing Paradigms: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) in Living Cells > Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state... - Published: 2023-08-21 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-architecture/cellular-automata-cells/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Paradigms Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed. What It IsKey Academic PapersHow It WorksComparison to Other ParadigmsCurrent Development StatusAdvantagesDisadvantagesImpact on CybersecurityBroader Technological ImpactsFuture Outlook(For other quantum computing paradigms and architectures, see Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Paradigms & Architectures) What It Is Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) are an abstract model of quantum computation inspired by classical cellular automata​. In a QCA, many simple “cells” (each a quantum system, e. g. a qubit) are arranged in a lattice and update their states in parallel according to local rules​. Each cell’s next state depends on its current state and that of neighboring cells, analogous to classical cellular automata like Conway’s Game of Life, but governed by quantum mechanical principles​. Notably, quantum superposition allows each cell to exist in multiple states at once, and entanglement can correlate cells in ways impossible in classical systems. The evolution of a QCA is typically unitary (reversible), ensuring it obeys quantum physics constraints while ideally being universal for quantum computation​. (For clarity, “quantum cellular automata” should not be confused with quantum dot cellular automata, a nanotechnology logic paradigm that uses quantum tunneling for classical bit operations​. Here we focus on QCA as a quantum computing model. ) Extending QCA to biological systems is a speculative leap: it envisions living cells or their molecular components acting as elements of a quantum automaton. In this paradigm, a biochemical network inside a cell could carry quantum information, updating via local quantum interactions similarly to a QCA rule set. The fundamental idea is that quantum processes (e. g. electron excitations, spin states, or molecular conformations in superposition) within living cells might function like the “cells” of an automaton, processing information in parallel. If feasible, quantum mechanics could enable cellular automaton-like behavior in biology by exploiting phenomena such as coherent energy transfer, quantum state switching of biomolecules, and entangled states... --- ### Ethical and Privacy Implications of Quantum Sensing > We have entered a new era where age-old expectations of privacy must be redefined for the quantum age... - Published: 2023-08-09 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ethics-privacy-quantum-sensing/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum sensing sits at a crossroads of promise and peril. On one hand, it embodies the awe-inspiring potential of quantum technology – offering us new eyes and ears to perceive the world in richer detail than ever before. It could save lives by finding disaster survivors behind rubble, improve medical diagnostics by monitoring vitals without contact, and enable scientific discoveries by observing nature’s tiniest forces. On the other hand, the very features that make it powerful also make it dangerous to core values like privacy, freedom, and autonomy. An ultra-sensitive sensor does not discriminate between benign and sensitive information; it collects everything, and therein lies the risk. Without conscious checks, we risk drifting into a society where virtually no aspect of our lives is unobservable, where privacy exists only if one is off-grid in the literal sense (far from any quantum sensors). IntroductionWhat Are Ultra-Sensitive Quantum Sensors? The Ethical and Privacy ChallengesGovernment and Law Enforcement UseCorporate SurveillancePersonal Privacy RisksSecurity Risks and AbuseCase Studies & Real-World ExamplesAI and Quantum Sensing: A Perfect Storm? Current Laws and Regulations: Are They Enough? Preparing for the Future: What Regulations and Ethical Frameworks Do We Need? Conclusion: A Crossroads for Quantum TechnologyIntroduction Quantum sensing is emerging as a revolutionary technology that promises detection capabilities once thought impossible. These ultra-sensitive quantum sensors leverage exotic physics to measure minute signals—enabling humans to “see through barriers, around corners, and potentially into the body or mind. ” Such power could disrupt industries from medicine to national security, offering breakthroughs in imaging, navigation, and more. At the same time, it raises profound ethical and privacy concerns. A device that can peer through walls or pick up an individual’s heartbeat at a distance blurs the line between public and private space. Experts warn that quantum sensors could dramatically amplify surveillance, even enabling new forms of mass monitoring that infringe on civil liberties. And when combined with artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze the deluge of data, the privacy risks grow exponentially. What Are Ultra-Sensitive Quantum Sensors? Quantum sensors are measurement devices that exploit quantum mechanical phenomena—such as superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference—to achieve sensitivities far beyond those of classical sensors. By harnessing effects at the atomic and subatomic level, they can detect incredibly small changes in physical parameters. In practical terms, this means observing the “unobservable”: tiny signals or hidden objects that were previously out of reach. Quantum sensors routinely attain precision that classical instruments cannot match; for example, certain prototypes are one to two orders of magnitude (10–100×) more sensitive than conventional technology. This leap in sensitivity is opening up a broad range of applications, from scanning deep underground to monitoring human biometrics... --- ### New Hybrid Quantum Monte Carlo Algorithm > Researchers developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical... - Published: 2023-08-07 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/new-hybrid-quantum-monte-carlo/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China Researchers Xiaosi Xu and Ying Li have developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical simulations. The breakthrough, published in Quantum in 2023, addresses the notorious sign problem in quantum Monte Carlo calculations – a key issue that causes explosive uncertainty in simulations of electrons and other fermions. By incorporating quantum data into the Monte Carlo sampling process, the new algorithm sharply reduces the bias and error that plague fully classical methods, potentially enabling more precise predictions of molecular energies and material properties on today’s imperfect quantum hardware. Expert CommentaryTechnical ExplanationThe Sign Problem in Quantum Monte CarloQuantum-Assisted Monte Carlo and Bias ReductionBayesian Inference to Reduce Quantum MeasurementsQuantum Resource RequirementsComparison with Other Hybrid ApproachesIndustry and Practical ImpactPharmaceuticals & BiotechMaterials Science & ChemistryQuantum Chemistry and HPC SimulationBusiness PerspectiveFuture OutlookBeijing, August 2023 – A team of physicists has unveiled a new quantum-classical hybrid algorithm that promises to overcome one of the most vexing hurdles in simulating quantum many-body systems. Researchers Xiaosi Xu and Ying Li have developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical simulations. The breakthrough, published in Quantum in 2023, addresses the notorious sign problem in quantum Monte Carlo calculations – a key issue that causes explosive uncertainty in simulations of electrons and other fermions. By incorporating quantum data into the Monte Carlo sampling process, the new algorithm sharply reduces the bias and error that plague fully classical methods, potentially enabling more precise predictions of molecular energies and material properties on today’s imperfect quantum hardware. Experts say this development could accelerate progress toward practical quantum advantage in fields ranging from chemistry to materials science. Expert Commentary Quantum computing experts are hailing the hybrid approach as an important milestone on the road to useful quantum algorithms. William Huggins of Google Quantum AI, who helped pioneer early quantum-classical Monte Carlo techniques, noted that combining small quantum computations with classical Monte Carlo “offers an alternative path towards achieving a practical quantum advantage for the electronic structure problem” – without requiring extremely accurate quantum hardware or error-corrected qubits. In 2022, Huggins and colleagues demonstrated the power of this approach by using a 16-qubit quantum processor to guide a classical simulation of a chemical system with 120 orbitals. Remarkably, their hybrid algorithm achieved chemical accuracy on this problem, rivaling state-of-the-art classical methods “without burdensome... --- ### Q-Day Predictions: Anticipating the Arrival of CRQC > While the exact arrival date of Q-Day remains uncertain, the necessity for immediate and strategic preparation does not. - Published: 2023-07-27 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/q-day-crqc-predictions/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: featured, popular While CRQCs capable of breaking current public key encryption algorithms have not yet materialized, technological advancements are pushing us towards what is ominously dubbed 'Q-Day'—the day a CRQC becomes operational. Many experts believe that Q-Day, or Y2Q as it's sometimes called, is just around the corner, suggesting it could occur by 2030 or even sooner; some speculate it may already exist within secret government laboratories. IntroductionBackgroundLogical Qubit vs Physical QubitQuantum SupremacyImpact on CryptographyReasons for CalmRequired CapabilitiesCanary in a Coal MineExpert OpinionStrategic Preparedness and Policy ResponseEnergy Requirements to Break a Single Key with CRQCInability to Keep it SecretReasons for ConcernAdvances in AlgorithmsAdiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC)ConclusionIntroduction There is a tremendous amount of hype about quantum computing recently. Governments, corporations, and academic institutions are pouring increasing resources into this field, recognizing its potential to address a wide array of critical scientific and societal challenges. While the technology has begun to affect specific areas, such as the design of efficient batteries for electric vehicles, precision drilling in the oil and gas industry, sophisticated financial analyses, medical research advancements, and improvements in weather prediction models, these applications remain quite narrow. Broader commercial uses hinges on the development of fault-tolerant quantum computing, a goal that still faces many challenges, as we’ll discuss later. One of the most frequently discussed potential applications of quantum computing is its ability to factor large numbers exponentially faster than classical computers, which could make it possible to break the public key encryption that underpins the internet, online banking, secure messaging, cryptocurrencies, control communication to cyber-physical systems, military communications, and more. Sensitive data protected by today's encryption methods, such as financial records, state secrets, and personal information, could suddenly become vulnerable to exposure. Adversaries could take control of critical infrastructure and mount cyber-kinetic attacks with ease. The emergence of such Cryptographically or Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) that will break or weaken existing "classical" cryptography will transform the cybersecurity landscape. While technological advancements are pushing us towards what is ominously dubbed ‘Q-Day’ - the day a CRQC becomes operational - CRQCs capable of breaking current public key encryption algorithms have not yet materialized. Many experts believe that Q-Day, or Y2Q as it’s sometimes called, is just around... --- ### Quantum Readiness for Mission-Critical Communications (MCC) > Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response - Published: 2023-07-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-mcc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: Telecommunications Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response services (police, fire, EMS), military units, utilities, and other critical operators to relay vital information when lives or infrastructure are at stake. These networks prioritize reliability, availability, and resilience – they must remain operational even during disasters or infrastructure outages. For example, in a hurricane that knocks out commercial cell towers and power, robust MCC networks are expected to “rise above” the chaos and keep first responders connected. Communications security is equally paramount: in crisis scenarios, sensitive information (tactical plans, personal data, etc.) must be protected from interception or tampering, even as the network withstands physical disruptions. Introduction to MCC and Quantum ThreatsCryptographic Inventory Challenges in MCC NetworksPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and MCC UpgradesIntegration, Bridging, and Interoperability ConsiderationsBest Practices for MCC Quantum ReadinessGlobal Perspectives and Standardization EffortsIntroduction to MCC and Quantum Threats Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response services (police, fire, EMS), military units, utilities, and other critical operators to relay vital information when lives or infrastructure are at stake. These networks prioritize reliability, availability, and resilience – they must remain operational even during disasters or infrastructure outages. For example, in a hurricane that knocks out commercial cell towers and power, robust MCC networks are expected to “rise above” the chaos and keep first responders connected. Communications security is equally paramount: in crisis scenarios, sensitive information (tactical plans, personal data, etc. ) must be protected from interception or tampering, even as the network withstands physical disruptions. This dual demand for high resilience and strong security defines MCC networks’ unique requirements. I was involved in several MCC projects in my career. Building MCC networks are massive infrastructure projects often costing in tens of billions of dollars and with life expectancy measured in decades. So, of course, they need to worry about the quantum threat. Quantum computers exploit phenomena like superposition and entanglement to solve certain mathematical problems exponentially faster than classical machines. Of particular concern are Shor’s algorithm and Grover’s algorithm, two quantum algorithms that directly undermine current cryptographic foundations. Shor’s algorithm (discovered in 1994) can efficiently factor large integers and compute discrete logarithms, meaning a sufficiently large quantum computer could break RSA encryption and Diffie–Hellman/ECC key exchange in polynomial time. In effect, widely used public-key schemes (RSA, elliptic-curve cryptography) would be rendered insecure by a quantum attacker, as the one-way mathematical problems they rely on become tractable.... --- ### Fidelity in Quantum Computing > While the number of qubits in a quantum processor is an important metric, fidelity and error correction are equally, if not more, significant - Published: 2023-06-19 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fidelity-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Fidelity in quantum computing measures the accuracy of quantum operations, including how effectively a quantum computer can perform calculations without errors. In quantum systems, noise and decoherence can degrade the coherence of quantum states, leading to errors and reduced computational accuracy. Errors are not just common; they're expected. Quantum states are delicate, easily disturbed by external factors like temperature fluctuations, electromagnetic fields, and even stray cosmic rays. IntroductionThe Fidelity ImperativeThe Error Correction ChallengeQuantum Superposition and EntanglementQuantum DecoherenceError Types Are More ComplexResource RequirementsNo Cloning TheoremOther Technical LimitationsError Mitigation? ConclusionIntroduction According to a recent MIT article, IBM aims to build a 100,000 qubit quantum computer within a decade. Google is aiming even higher, aspiring to release a million qubit computer by by the end of the decade. We witness a continuous push towards larger quantum processors with increasing numbers of qubits. IBM is expected to release a 1,000-qubit processor sometime this year. Quantum computing is on the brink of revolutionizing complex problem-solving. However, the practical implementation of quantum algorithms faces significant challenges due to the error-prone nature and hardware limitations of near-term quantum devices. Focusing solely on the number of qubits, as the media and marketing departments continue to do, is a bit of a red herring. Number of qubits is an easily quantifiable metric that keeps increasing every few months suggesting a straightforward path to quantum supremacy—the point at which quantum computers can solve problems beyond the reach of classical supercomputers. However, this emphasis on quantity overlooks the quality of the computational process itself. A qubit, or quantum bit, is the quantum version of the classical binary bit. It is the basic unit of quantum information, capable of representing and processing complex data through states of superposition and entanglement. At first glance, it seems logical to assume that more qubits mean a more powerful quantum computer. However, this perspective neglects a critical factor that is equally, if not more, important: fidelity. The Fidelity Imperative Fidelity in quantum computing measures the accuracy of quantum operations, including how effectively a quantum computer can perform calculations without errors. In quantum systems, noise and decoherence can degrade the coherence of quantum states, leading to errors and reduced computational accuracy. Errors are not... --- ### Quantum Technology Use Cases in Supply Chain & Logistics > Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally... - Published: 2023-06-10 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-logistics/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: Supply Chain & Logistics Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally new ways holds the promise of solving the longstanding puzzles of logistics – from finding optimal delivery routes and precise demand forecasts to orchestrating entire global supply networks with unprecedented efficiency. We’ve seen that even in these early stages, quantum technologies are demonstrating value in pilot projects: optimizing routes in near-real time​, improving inventory predictions​, and enabling more resilient planning through fast scenario analysis. IntroductionIndustry-Specific Use CasesQuantum Optimization for Supply Chain ManagementQuantum Computing for Demand ForecastingQuantum-Assisted Risk Management & Resilience PlanningQuantum Cryptography for Secure Logistics & TradeQuantum Solutions for Inventory & Manufacturing LogisticsPost-Quantum Security Challenges in Supply ChainsThe Arrival of Universal Quantum ComputingSector Preparation & ResponsesChallenges and RisksConclusionIntroduction ​Quantum computing is poised to be a game-changer for industries that grapple with complex decision-making, and nowhere is this more evident than in supply chain and logistics. Unlike classical computers that process one scenario at a time, quantum computers leverage quantum bits (qubits) to explore countless possibilities in parallel, promising an exponential leap in computing power​. This leap matters because modern supply chains generate enormous data and involve intricate optimization problems—from routing trucks and scheduling factories to balancing inventory across global networks—that often push classical algorithms to their limits. Indeed, many logistics challenges (like the infamous traveling salesman problem for route planning) are so complex that finding optimal solutions in a reasonable time is beyond today’s computers. Quantum machines, however, could tackle these problems by evaluating many potential solutions simultaneously, potentially finding optimal or near-optimal results dramatically faster​. The potential of quantum computing has already captured the imagination of business leaders in finance, healthcare, and logistics, who see it as the next big technological breakthrough​. In the supply chain context, quantum computing’s promise lies in optimization and speed. For example, a quantum computer could re-route deliveries in real time during a disruption, or recalculate an entire production schedule on the fly, tasks that would overwhelm conventional systems. Early estimates suggest quantum algorithms might eventually solve certain supply chain optimizations 100+ times faster than classical methods​. Even a modest improvement can be transformative: a 1-2% gain in fleet efficiency or warehouse throughput (often achievable with quantum-inspired methods today) can save millions of dollars in fuel and operating... --- ### Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL) Risk > "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL) is a cybersecurity threat where adversaries collect encrypted data today to decrypt it in the future - Published: 2023-06-08 - Modified: 2024-06-07 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/harvest-now-decrypt-later-hndl/ - Categories: Post-Quantum "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL), also known as "Store Now, Decrypt Later" (SNDL), is a concerning risk where adversaries collect encrypted data with the intent to decrypt it once quantum computing becomes capable of breaking current encryption methods. This is the quantum computing's ticking time bomb, with potential implications for every encrypted byte of data currently considered secure. IntroductionQuantum Computing and Encryption VulnerabilityHarvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL)How Real is the Threat? What Can You Do Today? Introduction Advances in quantum computing promise a new era in computing leading to signifiant breakthroughs in solving many scientific challenges or tackling major societal challenges such as the climate change. No, really. However, this advancement also brings the risk of a "quantum apocalypse," as the quantum computer's potential to exponentially speed up the factoring of large numbers threatens to weaken various forms of modern cryptography and break public key encryption systems that secure the internet, online banking, secure messaging, military systems, and much more. Such capabilities could lead to the day ominously known as "Q-Day," when cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) might render current encryption obsolete. While the Q-Day is not expected any time soon (see my article "Q-Day Predictions: Anticipating the Arrival of Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC)") there are urgent reasons to consider the impact of quantum computing now. For instance, if you are developing systems with a lifespan expected to surpass the advent of reliable quantum computing, you should definitely start looking into quantum-resistant or post-quantum cryptography (PQC) now. Additionally, reliance on encryption to protect sensitive data in along run may be misplaced, as quantum computing could eventually lead to adversaries decrypting the sensitive data encrypted by the contemporary encryption methods. "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL), also known as "Store Now, Decrypt Later" (SNDL), is a concerning risk where adversaries collect encrypted data with the intent to decrypt it once quantum computing becomes capable of breaking current encryption methods. This is the quantum computing's ticking time bomb, with potential implications for every encrypted byte of data currently considered secure. Quantum Computing and Encryption Vulnerability Traditional encryption, the backbone of digital security since the 1970s, relies on the complexity of... --- ### Post-Quantum Cryptography PQC Challenges > While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant PQC challenges that must be understood and addressed... - Published: 2023-06-01 - Modified: 2024-06-07 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-pqc-challenges/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The transition to post-quantum cryptography is a complex, multi-faceted process that requires careful planning, significant investment, and a proactive, adaptable approach. By addressing these challenges head-on and preparing for the dynamic cryptographic landscape of the future, organizations can achieve crypto-agility and secure their digital assets against the emerging quantum threat. IntroductionAlgorithm Maturity and StandardizationPerformance Challenges with Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Implementation ComplexityCompliance and Regulatory ChallengesCostConclusionIntroduction As the quantum threat approaches, the need to prepare our cryptographic systems has never been more critical. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) is positioned as THE solution to protect data and communications against the quantum computers. One common misconception I frequently observe among my clients is the belief that once the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) releases its PQC standards, implementing these new solutions will be simple and straightforward, instantly making their systems compliant and secure. Unfortunately, the reality is far more complex. While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant challenges that must be addressed. Algorithm Maturity and Standardization While significant progress has been made, many PQC algorithms are still in the experimental phase and have not yet undergone the extensive testing and validation that current cryptographic standards have. PQC algorithms are designed to withstand the capabilities of quantum computers, which can break classical cryptographic methods such as RSA and ECC. Bodies like the NIST have been at the forefront of developing and standardizing these new algorithms. NIST’s Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Project, initiated in 2016, aims to evaluate and endorse quantum-resistant algorithms. Although several promising candidates have emerged, they have not yet reached the level of maturity required for widespread adoption. Many of these algorithms are still undergoing rigorous testing to evaluate their security, performance, and practicality. Unlike classical algorithms, which have been tested and validated over decades, PQC algorithms are relatively new and must prove their resilience against both classical and quantum attacks. This process involves extensive cryptanalysis, implementation trials, and real-world testing, which takes time and resources. The standardization process for PQC is ongoing, and it is essential for organizations to stay informed about developments from bodies like NIST.... --- ### Quantum Errors and Quantum Error Correction Methods > Quantum error correction (QEC) is critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum... - Published: 2023-05-10 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-error-correction/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Quantum error correction (QEC) is therefore critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum computer can continue to operate correctly even when individual operations or qubits error out. Unlike classical error correction – which can simply duplicate bits and use majority vote – quantum error correction must delicately handle qubit errors indirectly (via entanglement and syndrome measurements) to avoid collapsing the quantum information. The development of QEC codes in the mid-1990s proved that robust quantum computation is possible in principle, so long as the physical error rates are below a certain threshold. Below this error-rate “threshold,” encoding qubits in larger codes yields exponentially suppressed logical error rates, enabling in theory arbitrarily long quantum computations. Achieving and operating below these error thresholds is one of the grand challenges on the road to practical quantum computers. IntroductionTypes of Quantum ErrorsComparison with Classical Error CorrectionCategories of Quantum Error Correction ApproachesQuantum Error Correcting Codes (QECCs)Bosonic Codes (for bosonic qubits)Error Mitigation Techniques (for near-term devices)Comparison of Quantum Error Correction MethodsFuture Prospects and ChallengesIntroduction Quantum computers process information using qubits that can exist in superposition states, unlike classical bits which are strictly 0 or 1. This enhanced power comes at the cost of quantum errors, which differ fundamentally from classical bit-flip errors. Qubits are highly susceptible to disturbances from their environment (decoherence) and imperfect operations, causing random changes in their state. Not only can a qubit’s value flip (0↦1 or 1↦0), but its phase can also flip (altering the relative sign of superposed states) without changing the bit value. Because qubits cannot be measured or copied without disturbing their state (due to the no-cloning theorem), these errors accumulate quickly and corrupt computational results if uncorrected. Quantum error correction (QEC) is therefore critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum computer can continue to operate correctly even when individual operations or qubits error out. Unlike classical error correction – which can simply duplicate bits and use majority vote – quantum error correction must delicately handle qubit errors indirectly (via entanglement and syndrome measurements) to avoid collapsing the quantum information. The development of QEC codes in the mid-1990s proved that robust quantum computation is possible in principle, so long as the physical error rates are below a certain threshold. Below this error-rate “threshold,” encoding qubits in larger codes yields exponentially suppressed logical error rates, enabling in theory arbitrarily long quantum computations. Achieving and operating below these error thresholds is one of the grand challenges on the road to practical quantum computers. Types of Quantum Errors Quantum errors can be classified by how they disturb the qubit’s state.... --- ### Quantum Era Demands Changes to ALL Enterprise Systems > Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. It is not just about changes to a few systems; it requires an enterprise-wide... - Published: 2023-05-08 - Modified: 2024-06-08 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-enterprise-changes/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In my work with various clients, I frequently encounter a significant misunderstanding about the scope of preparations required to become quantum ready. Many assume that the transition to a post-quantum world will be straightforward, involving only minor patches to a few systems or simple upgrades to hardware security modules (HSMs). Unfortunately, this is a dangerous misconception. Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. IntroductionAffected Categories of Enterprise SystemsOperating Systems (OS)Internal Business Operational SystemsFinancial SystemsCommunication Platforms --- ### Report "The Quantum Threat to the US Financial System" > Report published. Claiming a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could lead to losses of between $2 and $3.3 trillion in GDP. - Published: 2023-04-03 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-threat-us-financial-system/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States A new, interesting, report was just published by the Hudson institute - "Prosperity at Risk: The Quantum Computer Threat to the US Financial System," authored by Alexander W. Butler and Arthur Herman of the Quantum Alliance Initiative at the Hudson Institute. This comprehensive study explores potential threats posed by quantum computing to the U. S. financial system, emphasizing the urgent need for quantum-safe encryption and proactive policy measures. One of the most interesting statements in the report claim that due to the interconnectedness of the financial digital systems, and based on researchers' economic analysis, they estimate that a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could result in significant financial disruptions, causing liquidity crises and contractual breaches. This could lead to a decline in annual real GDP ranging from 10% to 17%, with potential losses between $2 and $3. 3 trillion in GDP. The full report is available here: https://www. hudson. org/technology/prosperity-risk-quantum-computer-threat-us-financial-system/ --- ### Inside NIST’s PQC: Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ > In 2022 NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption... - Published: 2023-03-28 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nists-pqc-technical/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In 2022, after a multi-year evaluation, NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption (key encapsulation) and digital signatures. Kyber is an encryption/key-establishment scheme (a Key Encapsulation Mechanism, KEM) based on lattice problems, while Dilithium (also lattice-based) and SPHINCS+ (hash-based) are digital signature schemes. IntroductionCRYSTALS-Kyber: Lattice-Based Key Encapsulation MechanismKey GenerationEncapsulation (Encryption)Decapsulation (Decryption)Fujisaki-Okamoto (FO) Transform for CCA SecurityKyber Performance and ParametersCRYSTALS-Dilithium: Lattice-Based Digital SignaturesKey GenerationSignature GenerationVerificationDilithium Parameters and EfficiencySPHINCS+: Stateless Hash-Based SignaturesHigh-Level StructureKey GenerationSignature GenerationPutting it togetherSecurityComparison with Classical Cryptography (RSA, ECC)Security BasisKey Sizes and StructuresEfficiency (Speed)Ciphertext/Signature OverheadCertificates and Protocol IntegrationSummaryComparison with Other Post-Quantum Candidates (not selected by NIST)NTRU and NTRU Prime (Lattice – NTRU Family)Saber (Lattice – Module-LWR)BIKE and HQC (Code-Based KEMs)Rainbow (Multivariate Signature)PICNIC (Symmetric-based Signature)SIKE (Isogeny-based KEM)Implementation Considerations and Real-World DeploymentSoftware Performance and BenchmarksProtocol Integration (TLS, IPsec, etc. )Challenges in Real-World AdoptionBenchmarks on Different PlatformsMemory and Network ConsiderationsBackward CompatibilityRegulatory and ComplianceSummarySecurity Assumptions and Known Attack VectorsResistance to Quantum AttacksClassical CryptanalysisSide-Channel AttacksDecryption Failure AttacksKnown Weaknesses or Open QuestionsPost-Quantum Safety of Symmetric PrimitivesOngoing AnalysisIntroduction The race to develop post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has produced new algorithms designed to withstand attacks by quantum computers. In 2022, after a multi-year evaluation, NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption (key encapsulation) and digital signatures. Kyber is an encryption/key-establishment scheme (a Key Encapsulation Mechanism, KEM) based on lattice problems, while Dilithium (also lattice-based) and SPHINCS+ (hash-based) are digital signature schemes. This article provides a technical deep dive into how these algorithms work, analyzes their mathematical foundations, and compares them with classical schemes (RSA, ECC) and other PQC candidates (NTRU, BIKE, Rainbow, etc. ). We also discuss implementation considerations (performance benchmarks, protocol integration, adoption challenges) and examine their security assumptions and known attack vectors (resistance to quantum/classical attacks, potential weaknesses). CRYSTALS-Kyber: Lattice-Based Key Encapsulation Mechanism Kyber is an IND-CCA2 secure KEM whose security relies on the hardness of the Learning-with-Errors (LWE) problem over module lattices. In simple terms, LWE asks one to solve noisy linear equations in a high-dimensional vector space, which is believed to be intractable even for quantum adversaries. Kyber uses... --- ### Quantum Networks 101: An Intro for Cyber Professionals > Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the internet - Published: 2023-03-08 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-networks-101/ - Categories: Quantum Networks - Tags: featured Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the classical internet. They hold the promise of fundamentally secure communications and new quantum information capabilities. While challenges remain, the continuous advances in hardware and protocols, bolstered by significant global investments, make it likely that many of us will experience the quantum network revolution within our careers. Introduction to Quantum NetworksKey Technologies in Quantum NetworkingFiber-Based Quantum NetworksSatellite-Based Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)Free-Space Optical Quantum LinksHybrid Quantum Networks (Multimodal)Fundamental Principles of Quantum NetworkingEntanglement DistributionQuantum TeleportationQuantum Repeaters and Error CorrectionBell Inequalities and Security TestsComparison with Classical Networks --- ### Google Claims Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction > Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step towards... - Published: 2023-02-24 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-breakthrough-error-correction/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step toward overcoming the most challenging technical barrier in developing this revolutionary technology. The findings were published in the journal Nature. Quantum computers face difficulties in producing useful results because qubits, the fundamental units of quantum information, maintain their quantum states for only a fraction of a second. This fleeting stability results in information loss before calculations can be completed. Addressing these errors is the primary technical challenge in the industry. While some quantum startups focus on programming today’s error-prone, or “noisy,” machines for marginal improvements over traditional computers, these efforts have yet to yield practical results. The consensus is growing that quantum computing will only become useful once the error correction problem is resolved. Google’s researchers have developed a method to distribute information across multiple qubits, allowing the system to retain enough information to complete calculations despite individual qubits losing their quantum states. Their research demonstrated a 4 percent reduction in the error rate as they scaled up their technique to a larger quantum system. Importantly, this marks the first instance where increasing the system size did not result in a higher error rate. This achievement shows Google has reached a “break-even point,” paving the way for continuous performance improvements and progress toward a practical quantum computer. The breakthrough was achieved through enhancements in all components of Google’s quantum computer, including the quality of qubits, control software, and cryogenic equipment used to maintain near-absolute zero temperatures. Google described this breakthrough as only the second of six steps necessary to develop a practical quantum computer. The next step involves refining their engineering to require only 1,000 qubits to create a “logical qubit”—an error-free abstraction built on top of imperfect physical qubits. For more details... --- ### Quantum Radar: The Next Frontier of Stealth Detection and Beyond > Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. - Published: 2023-02-15 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-radar/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. In theory, it promises detection capabilities beyond the reach of conventional radar, potentially piercing the invisibility of stealth aircraft and opening new possibilities in sensing. From its conceptual origins in quantum physics labs to recent experimental prototypes, quantum radar has become a hot topic in defense tech circles and beyond. In this article, we explore what quantum radar is, how it works, its development history, key experiments, applications in military and civilian domains, its current status and challenges, comparisons with classical radar, the security implications of its adoption, the role of AI in enhancing it, and what the future might hold for this quantum-powered sensor. What is Quantum Radar? History and EvolutionKey Papers and ExperimentsUse Cases and ApplicationsMilitary and DefenseCivilian, Scientific, and Other ApplicationsCurrent Status of Quantum Radar DevelopmentComparison with Classical RadarSecurity, Ethical, and Geopolitical ImplicationsAI and Quantum Radar: A Powerful CombinationFuture OutlookQuantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. In theory, it promises detection capabilities beyond the reach of conventional radar, potentially piercing the invisibility of stealth aircraft and opening new possibilities in sensing. From its conceptual origins in quantum physics labs to recent experimental prototypes, quantum radar has become a hot topic in defense tech circles and beyond. In this article, we explore what quantum radar is, how it works, its development history, key experiments, applications in military and civilian domains, its current status and challenges, comparisons with classical radar, the security implications of its adoption, the role of AI in enhancing it, and what the future might hold for this quantum-powered sensor. What is Quantum Radar? Quantum radar is essentially a radar system that exploits quantum-mechanical phenomena—such as entanglement and other non-classical correlations—to detect objects with greater sensitivity or in conditions where classical radars struggle. In a traditional radar, a transmitter sends out electromagnetic waves (often microwaves or radio waves) and a receiver listens for any reflection (echo) from a target. The strength and timing of that echo reveal the target’s distance and perhaps its size or speed. Quantum radar, by contrast, doesn’t just send out a generic signal; it sends out quantum entangled signals that are intrinsically linked to a reference signal kept at the receiver. Because of this special link, a quantum radar can know if a faint return signal is indeed from its own transmitter or just random noise, potentially allowing it to detect targets that would... --- ### The Future of Digital Signatures in a Post-Quantum World > The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into lattices and hashes... - Published: 2023-02-09 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-digital-signatures/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into the new territory of lattices and hashes. It’s an exciting time for cryptography, and a critical time for security practitioners. Authentication, integrity, and non-repudiation are security properties we must preserve at all costs, even in the face of revolutionary computing technologies. With careful preparation, the transition to quantum-resistant signatures can be smooth, and we’ll retain the strong foundation of digital trust that modern cybersecurity is built on – both now and for decades to come. What Are Digital Signatures and Why Do They Matter? Today’s Digital Signature Landscape: RSA, DSA, and ECDSAThe Quantum Threat: How Shor’s Algorithm Breaks RSA, DSA, and ECDSAEnter Post-Quantum Signatures: Lattices, Hashes, and New MathematicsBeyond the Winners: Other Quantum-Resistant Signature SchemesPractical Challenges: Transitioning to Quantum-Resistant SignaturesConclusion: Preparing for the Post-Quantum Signature EraWhat Are Digital Signatures and Why Do They Matter? Digital signatures are cryptographic tools that ensure a message or document is authentically from a specific sender, unaltered in transit, and cannot be disowned by the signer. In technical terms, a digital signature provides origin authentication, data integrity, and signer non-repudiation. Unlike a simple checksum or handwritten signature, a digital signature uses mathematics and cryptography to bind a person or entity to the digital data in a way that anyone can independently verify. Under the hood, digital signatures rely on public-key cryptography. The signer holds a private key used to generate the signature, and recipients use the corresponding public key to verify it. Typically, the signer hashes the message (to create a fixed-size digest) and then uses a mathematical algorithm with the private key to produce a signature on that digest. The verifier repeats the hashing and uses the signer’s public key to check that the signature is valid for that message digest. If the signature verifies, the recipient gains high confidence that (1) the message indeed came from the holder of the private key (authenticity), (2) it wasn’t tampered with en route (integrity), and (3) the sender cannot later deny having signed it (non-repudiation). This capability is a cornerstone of cybersecurity — from authenticating software updates and TLS certificates to securing blockchain transactions and electronic documents. Today’s Digital Signature Landscape: RSA, DSA, and ECDSA Over the past few decades, a few digital signature algorithms have become ubiquitous. RSA, DSA, and... --- ### Quantum Sensing - Introduction and Taxonomy > Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental... - Published: 2023-02-08 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-intro-taxonomy/ - Categories: Quantum Sensing Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and more – means it can achieve what was once thought impossible: detecting the seemingly undetectable. This field stands at a nexus between quantum physics and the real world, turning esoteric quantum effects into practical tools. As the technology matures, we will gain new eyes and ears (and noses and fingers, metaphorically) for science and industry. We’ll “see” underground structures without digging, “hear” the whispers of neuronal electric currents without probes, “feel” the drift of time in different gravitational potentials, and maybe even sniff out particles from beyond the Standard Model. IntroductionTheoretical GroundworkKey Challenges and RoadblocksFragility and Environmental IsolationSize, Weight, and Power (SWaP)Complexity and CostComparison with Improving Classical SensorsScalability and Production ChallengesCryogenics and Cooling RequirementsCalibration and StandardizationRegulatory and Security IssuesEthical and Privacy ConcernsA Taxonomy of Quantum SensorsAtom- and Ion-Based SensorsPhotonic and Light-Based SensorsMagnetometryRF and Microwave Quantum SensorsQuantum Thermometry and Other Niche SensorsFuture Prospects and ConclusionIntroduction Quantum sensing—the science of exploiting quantum phenomena like entanglement, superposition, and squeezed states—represents a dramatic leap in how we measure and interpret the world around us. While many modern instruments already rely on quantum principles (e. g. , lasers in optical scanners, quantum transitions in atomic clocks), the new wave of quantum sensors takes this integration further. By intentionally harnessing quantum effects to surpass classical limits, these devices promise sensitivity and precision that could revolutionize industries from healthcare to defense. Much of the early theoretical groundwork for quantum sensing was laid in research by Lloyd (2008) on quantum illumination, and later expanded by Tan, Pirandola, and Shapiro (2009), demonstrating how entangled photons might improve target detection in noisy environments. That same decade saw accelerating progress in cold-atom sensors (Kasevich & Chu, 1991; Peters et al. , 1999), which proved matter-wave interferometry could yield ultrahigh sensitivity for measuring gravitational fields. Seminal developments like these inspired further exploration of specialized sensing platforms, from superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) in magnetometry to nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in diamond for magnetic, thermal, and electric field sensing. Despite the rapid advancements, key challenges remain before quantum sensors achieve widespread deployment. Fragility and environmental isolation requirements often restrict these sensors to laboratory settings. Efforts in miniaturization and packaging—such as chip-scale atomic clocks and vapor-cell magnetometers—are bridging the gap, but cryogenics, specialized laser systems, and the need for robust shielding continue to limit practical rollout. Moreover, standardization and calibration pose significant hurdles. Many quantum... --- ### Scientists Achieve Entanglement Between Two Light Sources > In a new study, researchers managed to create entanglement between two quantum emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly... - Published: 2023-01-29 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/two-light-sources-entanglement/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe Researchers from the University of Copenhagen and Ruhr University Bochum have made a significant breakthrough in quantum technology by achieving controlled interaction between two quantum light sources, or quantum emitters, embedded in a nanophotonic waveguide. This development, reported in Science, is a foundational step toward building scalable quantum computers and enhancing quantum communication systems. In simple terms, quantum emitters are particles that can release light in the form of photons. In this study, researchers managed to create entanglement between these emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly, regardless of the physical distance between them. This breakthrough makes it possible to control not just one, but two quantum emitters simultaneously. The long-term goal is to use 20-30 such entangled quantum sources to develop powerful quantum computers capable of solving problems far beyond today's supercomputers. The challenge had been controlling multiple quantum emitters in a highly precise and quiet environment, but the researchers overcame this by creating nanochips designed to control these emitters in unison. The successful entanglement opens the door to advanced quantum information processing and sets the stage for the development of error-corrected quantum computers. This achievement is crucial because it takes a big step towards scalable quantum technology. However, more work remains to scale from two emitters to larger networks that could form the core of future quantum computers and communication systems​. For more details, see the paper available here: Collective super- and subradiant dynamics between distant optical quantum emitters. --- ### Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) > Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity... - Published: 2023-01-10 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity. In this article, we’ve seen that CRQCs are defined by their ability to execute quantum algorithms (like Shor’s and Grover’s) at a scale that breaks the cryptographic primitives we rely on daily. While still likely years (if not a decade or more) away, their eventual arrival is not a question of “if” but “when,” according to most experts​. IntroductionDefinition of CRQCCRQC vs Early-stage (NISQ) DevicesWhy CRQCs Matter for CybersecurityTheoretical FoundationsQuantum Computing PrinciplesQuantum Speedups in CryptographyImpact on RSA/ECC vs Symmetric CryptoQuantum Computational Power and CryptanalysisAchieving Quantum Speedup Beyond NISQQubit Counts to Break RSA/ECCError Correction and the Road to Fault ToleranceTimeline for CRQC RealizationCryptographic ImplicationsVulnerable Cryptographic ProtocolsPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) – Quantum-Resistant AlgorithmsMigration Challenges for Enterprises and GovernmentsBroader Cybersecurity ImplicationsQuantum-Enhanced Attacks Beyond CryptanalysisQuantum-Aided Security ToolsSupply Chain Security Risks in the Quantum EraIndustry and Research EffortsMajor Industry PlayersAcademic Consortia and ResearchNational InitiativesConclusionIntroduction Definition of CRQC A Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer (CRQC) is a quantum computing system powerful enough to break modern cryptographic algorithms that secure digital communications​. In practical terms, a CRQC is a large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer capable of running quantum algorithms (like Shor’s algorithm) to crack the cryptographic schemes (e. g. , RSA or ECC) that underlie today’s security. It contrasts with the small, noisy quantum processors we have now in that it can reliably perform long computations needed to attack encryption. CRQC vs Early-stage (NISQ) Devices Today’s quantum machines are in the Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) era. NISQ devices contain tens to a few hundred qubits and suffer high error rates, preventing sustained calculations​. They are not yet fault-tolerant – meaning they cannot correct errors on the fly – so their algorithms must be very short before noise overwhelms the result. A CRQC, by contrast, would have thousands (or more) of effective, error-corrected qubits and low error rates, allowing it to run complex algorithms far beyond NISQ capabilities. Essentially, NISQ machines might demonstrate “quantum supremacy” on niche problems, but they cannot break RSA or other cryptography; a CRQC would be able to, because it operates beyond the NISQ regime​. Why CRQCs Matter for Cybersecurity Modern cybersecurity fundamentally relies on cryptography – protocols like TLS, VPNs, digital signatures, and secure... --- ### Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act > On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H.R.7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act... - Published: 2022-12-23 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-preparedness-act/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H. R. 7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act, into law. This legislation urges federal agencies to upgrade their technologies to defend against potential quantum computing threats. The act is a crucial step in the United States' strategy to enhance its cybersecurity infrastructure in anticipation of advancements in quantum computing, which poses a serious risk to current cryptographic standards. The law mandates that federal agencies begin transitioning their systems to post-quantum cryptography, which is designed to be secure against both quantum computers and traditional computational threats. This move is part of a broader effort outlined in several key initiatives throughout the past just over a year aimed at bolstering the nation's quantum resilience: State Department Initiatives: Early in the year, on January 19, the State Department released a memorandum demanding that agencies identify and rectify any encryption protocols not aligned with NSA-approved Quantum Resistant Algorithms within six months. National Security Memorandum: On May 4, the administration issued National Security Memorandum 10 (NSM-10), promoting leadership in quantum computing while addressing vulnerabilities in cryptographic systems. OMB Memorandum: In November, Office of Management and Budget Director Shalanda D. Young issued a directive outlining steps for federal agencies to transition to Post-Quantum Cybersecurity (PQC), including creating a prioritized inventory of cryptographic systems. DHS Memorandum on Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography: In September 2021 the US Department of Homeland Security issued a memorandum "Preparing for Post-Quantum Security" providing guidance to Component Heads to begin preparing for a transition from current cryptography standards to post-quantum encryption now. Under the new law, federal agencies have six months to develop and implement a strategy for migrating to quantum-resistant cryptographic technologies. They are also required to maintain an inventory of current IT systems that are susceptible to quantum decryption.... --- ### 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published > 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing - Published: 2022-12-15 - Modified: 2024-05-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/2022-quantum-threat-timeline-report/ - Categories: Industry News The "2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report" by the Global Risk Institute, authored by Dr. Michele Mosca and Dr. Marco Piani from evolutionQ Inc. was just published. This report provides analysis of the quantum threat landscape and tries to predict the arrival of the Q-Day by polling a number of global quantum computing experts. The report emphasizes the urgent need for a transition to quantum-safe cryptography. This transition involves developing and deploying new cryptographic tools, establishing standards, and migrating legacy systems. The report outlines three key parameters that determine the urgency of this transition: the shelf-life of the data, the migration time required for safe transition, and the threat timeline, which is the focus of this report. The most interesting part of the report is the summary of expert opinions on quantum threat timeline. The authors surveyed 40 international leaders from academia and industry working on quantum computing. These experts provided their best estimates for the likelihood of developing a cryptographically-relevant quantum computer (CRQC) within various timeframes. The survey results indicate that the quantum threat will become significant relatively quickly, with a notable portion of experts predicting a non-negligible threat within the next 10 years. The report further highlights the leading physical platforms for quantum computing, including superconducting systems and trapped ions. It also discusses recent advances in cold-atoms quantum computing. The experts provided their estimates for the likelihood of developing a quantum computer capable of breaking RSA-2048 encryption within different timeframes, indicating an increasing likelihood as we look further into the future. The report also examines the impact of societal and funding factors on the development of quantum computers. It notes that while the level of global funding for quantum computing is expected to continue increasing, the pace may not be as rapid as in recent years. The report emphasizes... --- ### IBM Osprey: A 433-Qubit Quantum Leap > IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of 2022 - Published: 2022-11-30 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-osprey/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of its 2022 debut. Revealed at the IBM Quantum Summit in November 2022, Osprey more than triples the qubit count of IBM’s previous 127-qubit Eagle chip​. IBM says this new processor “brings us a step closer to the point where quantum computers will be used to tackle previously unsolvable problems,” according to Dr. Darío Gil, IBM’s Director of Research​. In principle, a state on the 433-qubit Osprey has an information content so enormous that the number of classical bits required to represent it “far exceeds” the total number of atoms in the known universe​. While practical quantum applications remain nascent, the Osprey chip’s sheer scale marks a major milestone in the quest to transcend classical computing limits.​ Largest Superconducting Processor to Date – and Why It MattersEngineering Breakthroughs Under the HoodMaintaining Qubit Quality at ScaleComparisons with Eagle, Sycamore, and ZuchongzhiImplications for the Industry and What Comes NextYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2022) – IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of its 2022 debut. Revealed at the IBM Quantum Summit in November 2022, Osprey more than triples the qubit count of IBM’s previous 127-qubit Eagle chip​. IBM says this new processor “brings us a step closer to the point where quantum computers will be used to tackle previously unsolvable problems,” according to Dr. Darío Gil, IBM’s Director of Research​. In principle, a state on the 433-qubit Osprey has an information content so enormous that the number of classical bits required to represent it “far exceeds” the total number of atoms in the known universe​. While practical quantum applications remain nascent, the Osprey chip’s sheer scale marks a major milestone in the quest to transcend classical computing limits. ​ Largest Superconducting Processor to Date – and Why It Matters Osprey’s 433 qubits vault IBM well ahead of prior superconducting quantum efforts in raw qubit count. Its predecessor Eagle (127 qubits) had only broken the 100-qubit barrier a year earlier in 2021​​. Competing devices like Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore (which achieved the first quantum “supremacy” demonstration in 2019) and China’s Zuchongzhi processors (66 qubits) now look modest by comparison in size​​. Scale is not everything, but it is a critical ingredient: more qubits allow more complex computations and larger entangled states. In fact, in 2021 a Chinese team led by Jian-Wei Pan used a 56-qubit subset of their 66-qubit Zuchongzhi 2. 0 processor to perform a random circuit sampling task beyond what Google’s... --- ### Entanglement Distribution Techniques in Quantum Networks > Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical... - Published: 2022-11-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-distribution/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical means. Distributing entanglement between distant locations is essential for applications such as quantum key distribution (QKD), quantum teleportation, and connecting quantum computers for distributed quantum computing​. Introduction to Entanglement DistributionDirect TransmissionEntanglement Swapping Across NodesEntanglement Purification and Error RatesCurrent Real-World State of Entanglement DistributionFuture Outlook and ChallengesIntroduction to Entanglement Distribution Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical means. Distributing entanglement between distant locations is essential for applications such as quantum key distribution (QKD), quantum teleportation, and connecting quantum computers for distributed quantum computing​. In QKD, for example, shared entangled pairs can be used to generate encryption keys with security guaranteed by quantum physics. In quantum computing, entanglement between remote qubits allows quantum information to be transmitted via teleportation, effectively “networking” quantum processors. Thus, a quantum network must be able to deliver entangled qubits between nodes on demand, analogous to how classical networks deliver bits. Bell states (also known as EPR pairs) are the fundamental two-qubit entangled states that serve as the building blocks for distributed entanglement​. These four maximally entangled two-qubit states form an orthonormal basis. In Dirac notation, they are typically given by: $$|\Phi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle + |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Phi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle - |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle + |10\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle - |10\rangle\big)$$ Each Bell state represents a pair of qubits (say held by Alice and Bob) that are perfectly correlated (or anti-correlated) in a specific basis. If Alice and Bob share a Bell state, a measurement on Alice’s qubit instantly collapses Bob’s qubit to a state consistent with the Bell state’s correlations. This nonlocal correlation is the essence of entanglement. Entangled photon pairs are a common physical instantiation of Bell states, often generated via spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) or similar nonlinear optical processes​. These photon pairs, when sent to two distant parties, can distribute entanglement to serve as the “links” in a quantum network. Entangled photon pair sources and Bell states underpin essentially all entanglement... --- ### Cat Qubits 101 > Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat... - Published: 2022-10-26 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cat-qubits-101/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators (e.g. modes of a microwave cavity) that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat superposition. Instead of relying on a single two-level quantum element, a cat qubit stores information in two coherent states of a harmonic oscillator and their quantum superposition. This approach is promising for quantum computing because it inherently protects the qubit from certain errors. In particular, cat qubits can suppress bit-flip errors by encoding 0/1 as two “classical-like” oscillator states that are very different (opposite phases) and thus unlikely to be confused by random noise. This means fewer physical qubits may be needed for error correction: increasing the energy (photon number) of the oscillator makes bit-flips exponentially rare , potentially reducing error-correction overhead by up to an order of magnitude. IntroductionHow Cat Qubits WorkComparison with Transmon QubitsMathematical BackgroundFirst Academic Paper on Cat QubitsChallenges and Future ProspectsIntroduction Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators (e. g. modes of a microwave cavity) that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat superposition. Instead of relying on a single two-level quantum element, a cat qubit stores information in two coherent states of a harmonic oscillator and their quantum superposition. This approach is promising for quantum computing because it inherently protects the qubit from certain errors. In particular, cat qubits can suppress bit-flip errors by encoding 0/1 as two “classical-like” oscillator states that are very different (opposite phases) and thus unlikely to be confused by random noise. This means fewer physical qubits may be needed for error correction: increasing the energy (photon number) of the oscillator makes bit-flips exponentially rare, potentially reducing error-correction overhead by up to an order of magnitude. By contrast, standard superconducting qubits like transmons encode a qubit in the two lowest energy levels of an anharmonic circuit and suffer from both bit-flip and phase-flip errors at similar rates, requiring heavy error correction. Cat qubits take a different route by using bosonic modes with large state spaces, trading hardware complexity for an improved error profile. This bosonic encoding is an increasingly important strategy on the road to scalable, fault-tolerant quantum computers. How Cat Qubits Work A cat qubit stores quantum information in a superposition of two coherent states of a resonator, often denoted  $$|\alpha\rangle$$  and  $$|-\alpha\rangle$$, which correspond to two opposite-phase oscillation states of the field. These are analogous to two “classical” states (like a pendulum swinging to the right vs. to the left) that a harmonic oscillator can have. The logical qubit states are realized as Schrödinger cat states, for example an “even cat” state proportional to ... --- ### ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study" > The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study" - Published: 2022-10-20 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-integration/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) has released a report titled "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration Study," offering a comprehensive look at the challenges and necessities of integrating post-quantum cryptographic systems. This publication follows ENISA's 2021 study on the current state of post-quantum cryptography and aims to provide a clearer understanding of the post-standardization landscape. The report highlights the critical need to design new cryptographic protocols and effectively integrate post-quantum systems into existing frameworks. As the quantum computing era approaches, ensuring the confidentiality and security of data against quantum-capable attackers is becoming increasingly urgent. ENISA's latest study explores strategic approaches to these challenges, emphasizing the importance of hybrid implementations that combine pre-quantum and post-quantum schemes. For those interested in further details or in accessing the full report, please visit ENISA’s publication page: Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration Study. --- ### Mitigating Quantum Threats Beyond PQC > A common misconception is that adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) alone will solve the problem. There are other mitigation approaches... - Published: 2022-09-01 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/mitigating-quantum-threats-pqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The article explores limitations of PQC and explores alternative and complementary approaches to mitigate quantum risks. It provides technical analysis of each strategy, real-world examples of their deployment, and strategic recommendations for decision-makers. The goal is to illuminate why a diversified cryptographic defense – beyond just rolling out new algorithms – is essential to achieve long-term resilience against quantum-enabled adversaries. IntroductionChallenges and Limitations of PQCAlternative and Complementary Quantum Risk Mitigation StrategiesHybrid Cryptographic ApproachesQuantum Key Distribution (QKD)Reducing the Cryptographic Attack SurfaceSystem Isolation & Air GappingFull System ReplacementQuantum-Safe Hardware Security Modules (HSMs)Quantum-Secure Communication Networks --- ### Introduction to Crypto-Agility > The field of cryptography is about to become much more dynamic. Which will require organizations to become crypto-agile. What is crypto-agility? - Published: 2022-09-01 - Modified: 2024-06-07 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/introduction-crypto-agility/ - Categories: Post-Quantum As we edge closer to the Q-Day—the anticipated moment when quantum computers will be capable of breaking traditional cryptographic systems—the need for crypto-agility becomes increasingly critical. Crypto-agility is the capability of an organization to swiftly and efficiently transition between different cryptographic algorithms and protocols in response to emerging threats and technological advancements. 1. Introduction2. Why Crypto-Agility? Why Now? 3. The Cost of Inaction4. How to Become Crypto-Agile? 4. 1. Engage Stakeholders4. 1. 1. Secure Support from Senior Leadership4. 1. 2. Form a Cross-Functional Team4. 2. Engage External Organizations for Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration4. 2. 1. Engage with NIST and Other Standard Development Organizations4. 2. 2. Collaborate with National Cybersecurity Agencies4. 2. 3. Engage with Academia4. 2. 4. Collaborate with Industry Consortia and Peer Organizations4. 3. Engage Your Third Parties4. 3. 1. Collaborate with Vendors and Third Parties4. 3. 2. Conduct Regular Third-Party Assessments4. 3. 3. Strengthen the Broader Ecosystem4. 4. Conduct a Comprehensive Cryptographic Inventory and Evaluate Vulnerabilities4. 4. 1. Identify and Catalog Cryptographic Assets4. 4. 2. Evaluate Vulnerabilities4. 5. Develop a Crypto-Agility Strategy4. 5. 1. Define Clear Goals4. 5. 2. Create the High-Level Roadmap4. 5. 3. Prioritize for Replacement4. 6. Develop and Implement Cryptographic Policies4. 6. 1. Establish Comprehensive Cryptographic Policies and Procedures4. 6. 2. Implement Procedures for Policy Compliance4. 7. Invest in Training and Education for Crypto-Agility4. 7. 1. Employee Training4. 7. 2. Conduct Awareness Campaigns4. 8. Upgrade Technology and Infrastructure for Crypto-Agility4. 8. 1. Upgrade to Up-to-Date Cryptographic Libraries4. 8. 2. Hardware and Software Upgrades4. 8. 3. Upgrade to Scalable Infrastructure4. 9. Implement Modular and Flexible Cryptographic Systems4. 9. 1. Design for Modularity4. 9. 2. Utilize Standardized Interfaces and APIs4. 9. 3. Streamline Integration and Updates4. 10. Implement Comprehensive Key Management and PKI Strategies4. 10. 1. Implement Comprehensive Key Management Systems4. 10. 2. Enhance PKI Management4. 11. Integrate Crypto-Agile Methodologies into DevOps/DevSecOps Workflows4. 11. 1. Foster a DevSecOps Culture4. 11. 2. Adopt Microservices Architecture4. 11. 3. Automate Cryptographic Management4. 11. 4. Incorporate Security Testing4. 12. Enhance Incident Response and Disaster Recovery for Crypto-Agility4. 12. 1. Update Incident Response Plans4. 12. 2. Update Disaster Recovery Plans4. 13. Establish Continuous Monitoring... --- ### Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Introduction > Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by... - Published: 2022-07-13 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-cryptography-pqc/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by a future quantum computer. The motivation for PQC is the threat that large-scale quantum computers pose to current cryptographic systems. Today’s widely used public-key schemes – RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic-curve cryptography – rely on mathematical problems (integer factorization, discrete logarithms, etc.) that could be easily solved by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer running Shor’s algorithm​. While current quantum processors are not yet strong enough to break modern crypto​, experts anticipate a “Q-Day” when this becomes feasible. PQC algorithms aim to remain secure against both classical and quantum attacks, protecting sensitive data well into the future. IntroductionHow PQC Differs from Traditional CryptographyThe NIST PQC Standardization Project and FinalistsCRYSTALS-Kyber (KEM)CRYSTALS-Dilithium (Signature)FALCON (Signature)SPHINCS+ (Signature)Other Notable PQC Algorithms and CandidatesInternational PQC Efforts: China and the EUImplications for Industry and Transition StrategiesIntroduction Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by a future quantum computer. The motivation for PQC is the threat that large-scale quantum computers pose to current cryptographic systems. Today’s widely used public-key schemes – RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic-curve cryptography – rely on mathematical problems (integer factorization, discrete logarithms, etc. ) that could be easily solved by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer running Shor’s algorithm​. While current quantum processors are not yet strong enough to break modern crypto​, experts anticipate a “Q-Day” when this becomes feasible. PQC algorithms aim to remain secure against both classical and quantum attacks, protecting sensitive data well into the future. The urgency is heightened by the possibility of “harvest now, decrypt later” attacks – adversaries stealing encrypted data today to decrypt once quantum capabilities arrive​. In contrast, most symmetric algorithms and hash functions are believed to resist quantum attacks (Grover’s algorithm only modestly speeds up brute-force, mitigated by using larger keys)​. Thus, PQC primarily focuses on replacing vulnerable public-key schemes with quantum-resistant alternatives. How PQC Differs from Traditional Cryptography Traditional public-key cryptography (RSA, ECC, DH) is based on problems like factoring large integers or computing discrete logarithms, which are intractable for classical computers but not for quantum computers. PQC, by contrast, uses different mathematical hard problems that have no known efficient quantum algorithms to solve them. These include: Lattice-based problems (e. g. finding short vectors in high-dimensional lattices or solving Learning-With-Errors problems). Code-based problems (decoding random linear codes, as in McEliece encryption). Multivariate quadratic equations (solving large systems of nonlinear equations, as in the... --- ### Quantum Teleportation > Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without... - Published: 2022-06-22 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-teleportation/ - Categories: Quantum Networks Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without physically sending the particle itself​. Quantum teleportation has become a foundational method in quantum communication, envisioned as a building block for quantum networks and even quantum computing​. In essence, it provides a way to transfer quantum information securely and instantaneously (in principle) across distance – with the crucial caveat that a couple of classical bits must be sent, preserving causality. IntroductionFundamentalsQuantum Teleportation in Quantum NetworksEntanglement Distribution and SwappingUnbreakable Keys and Quantum CryptographyQuantum Key Distribution (QKD) Over Long DistancesNetwork Resilience and Attack ResistanceNew Threats and ConsiderationsFuture OutlookIntroduction Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without physically sending the particle itself​. First proposed theoretically in 1993 by Charles Bennett and colleagues​, quantum teleportation exploits the phenomenon of quantum entanglement to transfer an unknown quantum state via a combination of entangled qubits and classical communication. In 1997, the first experimental demonstration confirmed that a photon's polarization state could indeed be teleported between two labs, marking a milestone in quantum information science​. Since then, quantum teleportation has become a foundational method in quantum communication, envisioned as a building block for quantum networks and even quantum computing​. In essence, it provides a way to transfer quantum information securely and instantaneously (in principle) across distance – with the crucial caveat that a couple of classical bits must be sent, preserving causality. This unique capability has placed quantum teleportation at the heart of designs for a future quantum internet and next-generation secure communication infrastructures. Fundamentals Quantum teleportation relies on entanglement – the “spooky action at a distance” that Albert Einstein skeptically noted. When two qubits are entangled, their states become correlated such that measuring one instantaneously determines the state of the other, no matter how far apart they ar​e. The strongest form of entanglement between two qubits is represented by the four Bell states (also known as EPR pairs). These four states form an orthonormal basis for two-qubit systems and are maximally entangled. In Dirac notation, the Bell states are given by​: $$|\Phi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle + |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Phi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|00\rangle - |11\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^+\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle + |10\rangle\big)$$ $$|\Psi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\big(|01\rangle -... --- ### Transmon Qubits 101 > Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. - Published: 2022-05-28 - Modified: 2025-02-22 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/transmon-qubits-101/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. In other words, a transmon is a superconducting charge qubit that has reduced sensitivity to charge fluctuations​. The device consists of a Josephson junction (a nonlinear superconducting element) in parallel with a sizable capacitance, which increases the ratio of Josephson energy to charging energy and thus stabilizes the qubit against charge noise​. Key CharacteristicsHow Transmon Qubits WorkAdvantages of Transmon QubitsChallenges:Significance in Quantum ComputingImpact on CybersecuritySummaryTransmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. In other words, a transmon is a superconducting charge qubit that has reduced sensitivity to charge fluctuations​. The device consists of a Josephson junction (a nonlinear superconducting element) in parallel with a sizable capacitance, which increases the ratio of Josephson energy to charging energy and thus stabilizes the qubit against charge noise​. Transmon qubits are one of the most widely used qubit architectures in quantum computing today, employed in many of the processors built by companies like IBM and Google​​ (as well as startups such as Rigetti Computing). Key Characteristics Josephson Junction Circuit: A transmon is implemented as a superconducting circuit with a Josephson junction (nonlinear inductor) shunted by a large capacitor. This forms an anharmonic oscillator that operates at microwave frequencies (typically in the 3–6 GHz range)​, which allows quantum states to be manipulated with microwave pulses. Reduced Charge Noise Sensitivity: Compared to the earlier Cooper-pair box qubit, transmons are far less sensitive to stray charge on the circuit. The large shunt capacitor makes the qubit’s energy levels nearly independent of background charge fluctuations​, significantly reducing dephasing from charge noise. Cryogenic Operation: Transmon qubits only function in an ultra-cold environment. They require dilution refrigerator temperatures on the order of ~10–20 millikelvin to maintain superconductivity and quantum coherence​. This cryogenic requirement ensures minimal thermal noise but adds complexity to the hardware setup. How Transmon Qubits Work A transmon qubit typically consists of a small superconducting island or loop interrupted by a Josephson junction, with a large capacitor shunting the junction. The quantum state of the qubit is encoded in the relative quantum phase across the Josephson... --- ### White House - Quantum Related National Security Memorandum > On May 4, 2022, the White House issued National Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing... - Published: 2022-05-07 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/white-house-quantum-security-memo/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On May 4, 2022, the White House issued a significant policy directive through the "National Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing While Mitigating Risks to Vulnerable Cryptographic Systems" or NSM-10. The memorandum highlights the urgency of developing quantum-resistant cryptographic systems to protect against potential threats posed by quantum computers, which could compromise current cryptographic defenses. This policy initiative sets forth a comprehensive strategy that includes establishing a migration project to post-quantum cryptography at the National Cybersecurity Center of Excellence. This project will collaborate with the private sector to tackle the cybersecurity challenges posed by the transition to quantum-resistant cryptography. Additionally, the memorandum mandates regular engagements and reports concerning the risks quantum computers pose, emphasizing the need for an updated inventory of cryptographic systems across federal agencies. Furthermore, the memorandum underscores the necessity for Federal agencies to update their cryptographic systems to withstand quantum computing threats, highlighting an integrated approach across governmental and private sectors to accelerate the adoption of secure cryptographic standards. More specifically, the memorandum sets a target year of 2035 for the transition to quantum-resistant cryptographic systems. To facilitate this transition, the implementation of cryptographic agility frameworks is prioritized. Both the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the National Security Agency (NSA) are pivotal in this effort, tasked with developing and setting technical standards expected to be ratified by 2024. This section also outlines a comprehensive timeline for agency actions over the next year, with ongoing reporting obligations extending into the future. Next section of the memorandum highlights the critical need to safeguard relevant quantum Research & Development (R&D) and intellectual property (IP) from potential threats such as cybercrime and theft. The U. S. government is committed to launching educational campaigns targeting various sectors including industry, academia, and state and local entities. These... --- ### Dos & Don'ts of Crypto Inventories for Quantum Readiness > Manual, interview-based, surrvey-based, spreadsheet-based cryptographic inventories are insufficient and potentially detrimental... - Published: 2022-05-05 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/manual-cryptographic-inventories/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Relying on asset owners, developers or IT personnel to identify and report in interviews or survey responses every instance of cryptographic usage is not just impractical; it simply does not work... IntroductionThe Flaws of Manual Cryptographic InventoriesThe Hidden Challenges of Cryptographic InventoryThe Layers Beneath ApplicationsThe Limitations of Human AwarenessThe Inadequacy of Interviews and SpreadsheetsThe Illusion of SecurityImplications for Quantum ReadinessThe Need for Automated Discovery ToolsSelecting the Right Automated Discovery Tools for Comprehensive Cryptographic Inventory1. Static Code Analysis2. Dynamic Analysis (Runtime Monitoring)3. Network Traffic Analysis4. Configuration and System Scanning5. Dependency Analysis6. Binary Analysis7. Cloud Environment Scanning8. Hardware and Firmware Analysis9. Certificate and Key Management Discovery10. Log AnalysisThe Importance of Using Multiple ToolsBuilding a Comprehensive Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM)Forgoing Cryptographic Inventory—An Alternative ApproachThe Logic Behind Skipping the InventoryChallenges of the No-Inventory ApproachThe Hybrid Approach: Immediate Action with Concurrent Inventory DevelopmentConclusionIntroduction The impending arrival of quantum computing presents a double-edged sword: while it promises unprecedented computational power, it also threatens to render current cryptographic systems obsolete. Organizations worldwide are scrambling to prepare for this quantum leap. One of the first steps advised for quantum readiness initiatives is for organizations to perform a comprehensive cryptographic inventory. In the absence of more specific requirements or established industry best practices, many started relying on manual, interview-based, inventories recorded in spreadsheets as their go-to approach. It's a box-ticking exercise that gives the appearance of action without true efficacy. In IT and OT environments, cryptography is embedded into every device, application, and service—often embedded deeply in ways that aren't immediately apparent. Relying on asset owners, developers or IT personnel to identify and report in interviews or survey responses every instance of cryptographic usage is not just impractical; it simply does not work. Even these, ostensibly best-positioned stakeholders, would not be aware of all the cryptographic uses and dependencies within systems under their control, leading to incomplete, unreliable, and ultimately useless inventories. This article explores why the oft-used, manual cryptographic inventories are insufficient for quantum readiness. I'll argue that... --- ### Record-Breaking Quantum Transmission Via Micius > A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication via Micius satellite​... - Published: 2022-04-29 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/micius-quantum-communications/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication, successfully teleporting quantum states between two ground stations 1,200 kilometers apart via Micius satellite​. The experiment, led by Pan Jianwei of the University of Science and Technology of China, marks the longest-distance quantum teleportation ever demonstrated, shattering previous records that were limited to tens or hundreds of kilometers. The researchers report that six independent quantum states were transmitted with high fidelity, surpassing the best possible performance of any classical communication method​. Experiment Explained: Teleporting Qubits Across ContinentsWhy It Matters: Advancing Quantum Communication and CryptographyChina’s Quantum Quest: Micius and the Road to a Quantum NetworkA New Quantum Space Race? Global Implications and LeadershipBeijing, China (April 2022) — A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication, successfully teleporting quantum states between two ground stations 1,200 kilometers apart via Micius satellite​. The experiment, led by Pan Jianwei of the University of Science and Technology of China, marks the longest-distance quantum teleportation ever demonstrated, shattering previous records that were limited to tens or hundreds of kilometers. The researchers report that six independent quantum states were transmitted with high fidelity, surpassing the best possible performance of any classical communication method​. This breakthrough, published in Physical Review Letters, is being hailed as a “giant step” toward a future global quantum network​, paving the way for ultra-secure, intercontinental quantum communication. Experiment Explained: Teleporting Qubits Across Continents At the heart of the experiment is the phenomenon of quantum teleportation, which transfers the state of a quantum particle from one place to another without moving the particle itself. To achieve this, two distant locations (traditionally nicknamed “Alice” and “Bob”) must share a pair of entangled photons – particles linked in such a way that measuring one instantly affects the state of the other​​. In this Chinese-led demonstration, the entangled photon pairs were distributed by Micius, a low-Earth-orbit satellite dedicated to quantum science. One photon from each pair was sent down to Alice’s ground station in Lijiang, in southwest China’s Yunnan province, while its twin was delivered to Bob’s station in Delingha, Qinghai province – a separation of 1,200 km on the ground​. Equipped with one half of an entangled pair, Alice then performed a joint Bell-state measurement on her entangled photon and a third photon carrying the... --- ### National Initiatives in Quantum Technologies (as of April 2022) > Countries are actively enhancing their capabilities through quantum-related strategic initiatives and regulatory frameworks - Published: 2022-04-28 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/global-initiatives-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing As quantum technologies garner global attention, its economic and national security implications are positioning these set of technologies alongside AI and 5G as pivotal emerging technologies for the future. Governments worldwide are recognizing the strategic importance of quantum technologies, which broadly includes quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing. Quantum TechnologiesUnited StatesNational Quantum Initiative ActNational Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing While Mitigating Risks to Vulnerable Cryptographic SystemsEuropean UnionQuantum ManifestoQuantum Technologies FlagshipChina13th Five Year Special Plan for Science and Technology Military-Civil Fusion Development14th Five Year PlanThe NetherlandsGermanyUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaSingaporeSouth KoreaRussiaAs quantum technologies garner global attention, its economic and national security implications are positioning these set of technologies alongside AI and 5G as pivotal emerging technologies for the future. Governments worldwide are recognizing the strategic importance of quantum technologies, which broadly includes quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing. To capitalize on quantum technologies, nations are launching strategic initiatives and creating regulatory frameworks to accelerate their development and adoption. Even though the field has been in development for decades in research labs, sensing that practical uses are nearing, the governments are all now in various ways trying to create the scientific-economic system that will help the industry transition from research labs to commercialization. Quantum Technologies As this blog is primarily focused on quantum computing, particularly its impact on cybersecurity, it's useful to explain the wider field of quantum technologies. Quantum technologies encompass a group of emerging technologies that exploit the principles of quantum mechanics to achieve breakthroughs across various domains. Quantum Sensing: Quantum sensing technologies harness the sensitivity of quantum systems to detect and measure minute changes in various physical properties. This capability holds the potential to revolutionize fields such as medical imaging, by improving the accuracy of diagnostic tools, and geophysics, by enhancing the precision of underground surveying techniques. Applications in navigation and radar systems could benefit from the heightened sensitivity of quantum sensors, offering a level of precision unattainable with current technology. Quantum Communication: This aspect of quantum technology focuses on securing communication using the principles of quantum mechanics. Unlike traditional methods that transmit encrypted data... --- ### Glossary of Quantum Computing Terms > Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals - Published: 2022-04-05 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/glossary-quantum-cyber/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals. Fundamentals of Quantum ComputingQubitSuperpositionEntanglementQuantum MeasurementBloch SphereQuantum Mechanics and Mathematical FoundationsHilbert SpaceBra–Ket Notation (Dirac Notation)Eigenstate and EigenvalueHamiltonianUnitary OperationAbelian vs. Non-AbelianBell inequalitiesBorn ruleWavefunction collapsePath integral formulationQuantum contextualityTensor networksUnitary matricesClifford groupQuantum channels and CPTP mapsKraus operatorsPauli groupStabilizer formalismPOVMs (Positive Operator-Valued Measures)Quantum Fisher informationQuantum Computing Architecture and HardwareQuantum GatesQuantum CircuitsPhysical Qubit ImplementationsMajorana FermionsQuantum AnnealingJosephson junctionsSuperconducting resonatorsCoherence timeQubit connectivityQuantum transducersCryogenic systemsIon traps and laser coolingTransmon qubitsQuantum interconnectsQuantum memory storageQuantum Error Correction and NoiseDecoherenceFidelityQuantum Error Correction (QEC)Fault ToleranceNoisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ)Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC)Quantum Cryptography and Security ConceptsCRQC (Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computer)Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)No-Cloning TheoremQuantum Advantage (and “Quantum Supremacy”)Shor’s AlgorithmGrover’s AlgorithmPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Q-DayY2Q (Years to Quantum / Years to Q-Day)Quantum oblivious transfer (QOT)Quantum bit commitmentQuantum digital signaturesQuantum zero-knowledge proofsQuantum money and unclonable tokensDevice-independent QKDQuantum-resistant authenticationRandomness amplificationQuantum-secure timestampingEmerging and Experimental TopicsQuantum advantage experimentsQuantum gravity and holographyAdiabatic quantum computing vs. gate-basedMeasurement-based quantum computingContinuous-variable quantum computingTopological quantum field theoriesAnyon braiding for fault toleranceTime crystals and quantum time orderBoson sampling and quantum photonics advancesQuantum repeatersSatellite-based quantum communicationEntanglement distillationQuantum teleportation protocolsHybrid quantum-classical networksFundamentals of Quantum Computing Qubit A qubit (short for quantum bit) is the basic unit of information in quantum computing, analogous to a bit in classical computing​. Like a bit, a qubit has two basis states often labeled |0⟩ and |1⟩, but unlike a classical bit, a qubit can exist in a superposition of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously. This means it can encode 0, 1, or a combination of 0 and 1 at the same time until it is measured. This property allows qubits to carry much richer information than classical bits. In practice, qubits can be implemented by physical systems such as electrons or photons – for example, using an electron’s spin or a photon’s polarization to represent the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states​. Multiple qubits can also become entangled (see Entanglement), enabling powerful correlations that... --- ### IBM Eagle: The First 100+ Qubit Quantum Processor > IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits​. - Published: 2021-11-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-eagle/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits​. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit in late 2021, Eagle marks a major milestone in quantum computing, nearly doubling the qubit count of IBM’s previous 65-qubit “Hummingbird” processor and overtaking the scale of rival devices like Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore​​. IBM’s researchers herald Eagle as ushering in a “new era” where quantum computers can explore computational problems beyond the reach of classical machines​​. By breaking the 100-qubit barrier, Eagle moves the industry one step closer to demonstrating quantum advantage – the point at which quantum computers outperform classical supercomputers on useful tasks – a goal IBM believes it can achieve within the next couple of years​. Pushing Quantum Computation Beyond Classical LimitsEagle vs. Sycamore and Zuchongzhi: A Leap in ScaleEngineering Breakthroughs Under the HoodWhy Eagle Matters for the Future of Quantum ComputingYorktown Heights, N. Y. , USA (Nov 2021) - IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits​. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit in late 2021, Eagle marks a major milestone in quantum computing, nearly doubling the qubit count of IBM’s previous 65-qubit “Hummingbird” processor and overtaking the scale of rival devices like Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore​​. IBM’s researchers herald Eagle as ushering in a “new era” where quantum computers can explore computational problems beyond the reach of classical machines​​. By breaking the 100-qubit barrier, Eagle moves the industry one step closer to demonstrating quantum advantage – the point at which quantum computers outperform classical supercomputers on useful tasks – a goal IBM believes it can achieve within the next couple of years​. Pushing Quantum Computation Beyond Classical Limits Eagle’s 127 qubits place it in a regime that is extraordinarily hard to simulate with any classical computer. In a classical sense, each additional qubit doubles the size of the quantum state space, so a 127-qubit system corresponds to $$2^{127}$$ complex amplitudes – roughly $$1. 7\times10^{38}$$ values​. Storing and processing that many parameters is well beyond the capacity of the world’s largest supercomputers, which makes Eagle effectively impossible to brute-force simulate using conventional methods​. This is why IBM describes Eagle as its first “utility-scale” quantum processor, meaning it opens a window to explore calculations that were previously infeasible to model exactly on classical hardware​. “As quantum processors scale up, each additional qubit doubles the amount of memory space required to reliably simulate quantum circuits ,” IBM noted in its announcement, underscoring the significance of reaching triple-digit... --- ### Ready for Quantum: Practical Steps for Cybersecurity Teams > Practical preparation for Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) and Q-Day—when quantum computing will break cryptography - Published: 2021-11-01 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/practical-steps-quantum/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: featured, popular The journey towards quantum resistance is not merely about staying ahead of a theoretical threat but about evolving our cybersecurity practices in line with technological advancements. Starting preparations now ensures that organizations are not caught off guard when the landscape shifts. It’s about being informed, vigilant, and proactive—qualities essential to navigating any future technological shifts. 1. Introduction2. Practical Reasons for Preparing Now2. 1. The Inevitability of Technological Progress2. 2. The Complexity of Transition2. 3. The Longevity of Data2. 4. The Longevity of Digital Infrastructure2. 5. Regulatory and Compliance Requirements2. 6. Maintaining Public Trust2. 7. Enhancing Overall Cybersecurity Maturity2. 8. Insurance2. 9. Competitive Advantage2. 10. Cybersecurity Talent Attraction2. 11. Opportunity for Innovation3. Challenges with Post Quantum Cryptography (PQC)3. 1. Algorithm Maturity and Standardization3. 2. Performance Challenges3. 3. Implementation Complexity3. 4. Compliance and Regulatory Challenges3. 5. Cost3. What You Shouldn't Do3. 1. Avoid Panic Buying of Solutions3. 2. Avoid Rushing to Lock Down Systems4. What You Should Do4. 1. Secure Support from Senior Leadership4. 1. 1. Practical Steps for Engaging Senior Leadership4. 2. Establish a Cross-Functional Team for Quantum Readiness4. 2. 1. Practical Steps to Establish the Team4. 3. Launch an Awareness Campaign on Quantum Computing4. 3. 1. Practical Steps to Launch an Awareness Campaign on Quantum Computing4. 4. Engage External Parties for Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration4. 4. 1. Engage with NIST and Other Standard Development Organizations4. 4. 2. Collaborate with National Cybersecurity Agencies4. 4. 3. Engage with Academia4. 4. 4. Collaborate with Industry Consortia and Peer Organizations4. 5. Preparing Your Third Parties for the Arrival of CRQC4. 5. 1. Practical Steps for Preparing Your Third Parties for the Arrival of CRQC4. 9. 1. Practical Steps for Performing Sensitive Data Discovery and Classifications4. 10. Critical Systems and Assets Discovery and Classification4. 10. 1. Practical Steps for Performing Systems and Assets Discovery and Classification4. 11. Keep Inventories Up to Date4. 11. 1. Practical Steps to Maintain Up-to-Date Inventories4. 12. Perform Risk Assessment and Prioritize for Remediation4. 12. 1. Practical Steps to Performing Risk Assessment and Prioritization for Remediation4. 13. Develop Your Cryptographic Strategy4. 13. 1. Understanding Risk Mitigation Options4. 13. 1. 1. Strengthening Cybersecurity Controls4. 13. 1. 2.... --- ### Zuchongzhi 2.0: China’s Superconducting Quantum Leap > A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype - Published: 2021-06-30 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-2-0/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype that pushes the frontiers of computational power. Announced by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information, this new quantum machine builds on its predecessor (Zuchongzhi 1.0) with more qubits and higher fidelity, achieving a milestone known as quantum computational advantage (or “quantum supremacy”) in a programmable device​. In a benchmark test, Zuchongzhi 2.0 solved a problem in just over an hour that researchers estimate would take the world’s fastest supercomputer at least eight years to crack​. From Zuchongzhi 1. 0 to 2. 0: Scaling Up a Quantum ProcessorDemonstrating Quantum Advantage on a 66-Qubit ChipHow It Stacks Up Against Google, Jiuzhang, and IBMTechnical Breakthroughs and Why They MatterBroader Impact and What’s NextHefei, China, (Jun 2021) — A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2. 0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype that pushes the frontiers of computational power. Announced by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information, this new quantum machine builds on its predecessor (Zuchongzhi 1. 0) with more qubits and higher fidelity, achieving a milestone known as quantum computational advantage (or “quantum supremacy”) in a programmable device​. In a benchmark test, Zuchongzhi 2. 0 solved a problem in just over an hour that researchers estimate would take the world’s fastest supercomputer at least eight years to crack​. This dramatic speedup – on the order of millions of times faster than classical computing for the task – firmly places Zuchongzhi 2. 0 at the forefront of the quantum computing race​. It also marks China as the first nation to reach quantum advantage on two technological platforms (photonic and superconducting)​, underlining the country’s rapid strides in this high-stakes field. From Zuchongzhi 1. 0 to 2. 0: Scaling Up a Quantum Processor Zuchongzhi 2. 0 is the second-generation superconducting quantum processor developed by a team led by Pan Jianwei at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. It is named after Zu Chongzhi, a 5th-century Chinese mathematician famed for calculating pi with record-breaking precision. The first version (Zuchongzhi 1. 0), introduced in early 2021, featured 62 qubits and demonstrated advanced quantum control (such as two-dimensional quantum walks) but stopped short of outperforming classical computers​​. Zuchongzhi 2. 0, by contrast, ups the ante to 66 functional qubits arranged... --- ### Next-Generation QKD Protocols: A Cybersecurity Perspective > Next-generation QKD protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities... - Published: 2021-05-31 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/next-generation-qkd/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Networks Traditional QKD implementations have demonstrated provably secure key exchange, but they come with practical limitations. To address these limitations, researchers have developed next-generation QKD protocols. These advanced protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities, and they enhance performance (key rate, distance) through novel techniques. The article includes a high-level overview of the most notable next-gen QKD protocols. Introduction to QKD and Its Importance for CybersecurityOverview of Next-Generation QKD ProtocolsDevice-Independent QKD (DI-QKD)Measurement-Device-Independent QKD (MDI-QKD)Continuous-Variable QKD (CV-QKD)Twin-Field QKD (TF-QKD)Other Emerging Protocols and TechniquesQuantum Repeaters for QKDHigh-Dimensional QKDQuantum Satellite QKD & Trusted RelaysAdvantages Over Traditional QKDReal-World Applications and Commercial ViabilityChallenges and LimitationsTechnical Challenges – Loss, Noise, and Hardware ConstraintsIntegration and Infrastructure IssuesStandardization and InteroperabilitySecurity Caveats – Not a Silver BulletPerformance and UsabilityFuture Outlook and Breakthroughs NeededAdvances in Quantum HardwareQuantum Repeaters and MemoryHigher-Dimensional and Higher-Rate ProtocolsNetwork Integration and ManagementGlobal Quantum Security EcosystemFusion with Classical SecurityCost Reduction and CommercializationQuantum Internet Applications Beyond QKDConclusion(Minor updates in Jan 2025 to include latest developments in the EU) Introduction to QKD and Its Importance for Cybersecurity Quantum Key Distribution (BB84 protocol) have demonstrated provably secure key exchange, but they come with practical limitations. One major issue is the distance and key rate constraint: optical fiber QKD links suffer exponential photon loss with distance, typically limiting direct links to a few tens of kilometers (up to ~100 km in real-world conditions). Laboratory experiments have pushed fiber QKD to around 400 km by using ultralow-loss fiber and cryogenically cooled detectors, but those setups are impractical for commercial use​. Another limitation is that extending QKD beyond line-of-sight often requires “trusted nodes” – intermediate relay stations where keys are decrypted and re-encrypted. While these nodes can extend QKD across a network or continent, each must be physically secure and trusted, or else a compromise at one node could expose the keys​. This trusted-relay architecture introduces security risks that QKD ideally seeks to avoid. In summary, basic QKD is powerful for future-proof security, but overcoming its distance limits and device vulnerabilities is critical for broad cybersecurity adoption. Overview of Next-Generation QKD Protocols To address the above limitations, researchers have developed next-generation QKD protocols. These advanced protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and... --- ### Zuchongzhi 1.0: China's New Superconducting Processor > In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting... - Published: 2021-05-30 - Modified: 2025-03-11 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-1/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting quantum computer that set a new benchmark in the quantum computing race. Named after a 5th-century Chinese mathematician, Zuchongzhi 1.0 contains the largest number of superconducting qubits ever assembled in a single processor so far​. A Programmable 62-Qubit Quantum Computer Sets a New RecordQuantum Advantage: From Google’s Sycamore to ZuchongzhiTechnical Innovations Under the HoodBroader Implications and OutlookIn May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1. 0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting quantum computer that set a new benchmark in the quantum computing race. Named after a 5th-century Chinese mathematician, Zuchongzhi 1. 0 contains the largest number of superconducting qubits ever assembled in a single processor so far​. This breakthrough machine, announced by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics and published in Science in May 2021, achieved a milestone experiment: two-dimensional programmable quantum walks using all 62 qubits​. The achievement underscored China’s growing role in cutting-edge quantum computing and hinted at a new era of quantum advantage on a programmable platform. A Programmable 62-Qubit Quantum Computer Sets a New Record Zuchongzhi 1. 0 is a 62-qubit superconducting processor, built on an 8×8 two-dimensional grid of transmon qubits (with a few sites unoccupied)​. Each qubit is a tiny superconducting circuit that can hold a quantum bit of information, and neighboring qubits are linked by tunable couplers that allow controlled interactions. In their first demonstration, the research team used this device to perform high-fidelity single- and two-particle quantum walks – essentially letting one or two quantum “walkers” hop around the grid in a superposition of paths​. It’s akin to particles taking random walks on an 8×8 chessboard, exploring many routes at once thanks to quantum superposition​. By programming different patterns of couplings, the team implemented a kind of Mach-Zehnder interferometer on the chip, where the wandering particles split and recombine along different pathways. The resulting interference fringes, observed over many runs, verified that the qubits were entangled and coherently controlled across the 62-node lattice​. Achieving such two-dimensional programmable quantum... --- ### ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography" Report > The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation" - Published: 2021-05-15 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/enisa-pqc-state/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) has recently published a report titled "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation. " This study offers a detailed overview of the current progress in the standardization process of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), crucial for safeguarding digital communications against the emerging threat posed by quantum computing capabilities. The report categorizes and explores the five principal families of post-quantum algorithms: code-based, isogeny-based, hash-based, lattice-based, and multivariate-based. Each family presents a unique approach to securing cryptographic systems in a post-quantum world. Additionally, ENISA's report explores National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Round 3 finalists for encryption and signature schemes, highlighting the forefront of PQC innovation. With the NIST’s selection process expected to continue for several more years, the report also proposes immediate measures that system owners can adopt to protect data confidentiality against quantum-capable attackers. One recommended strategy is the implementation of hybrid systems, which integrate both pre-quantum and post-quantum cryptographic schemes. Another approach is the incorporation of pre-shared keys into all public-key established keys, enhancing the overall security of these cryptographic systems. ENISA's report is a critical resource for cybersecurity professionals, policymakers, and anyone involved in the transition to quantum-resistant technologies. The agency’s proactive recommendations provide a pathway for organizations to begin fortifying their systems against potential quantum threats today. The full report, "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation," is at ENISA's official site: ENISA - Post-Quantum Cryptography Report. --- ### Evaluating Tokenization in the Context of Quantum Readiness > One often overlooked yet highly promising approach to quantum readiness is tokenization which can reduce dependence on quantum-vulnerable... - Published: 2021-04-16 - Modified: 2024-06-08 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/tokenization-quantum-readiness/ - Categories: Post-Quantum As the quantum era approaches, organizations face the daunting task of protecting their sensitive data from the looming threat of quantum computers. These powerful machines have the potential to render traditional cryptographic methods obsolete, making it imperative to explore innovative strategies for quantum readiness. One often overlooked yet highly promising approach is tokenization. IntroductionWhat is Tokenization? The Benefits of Tokenization in the Context of Quantum ReadinessMinimizing Infrastructure OverhaulReducing Attack SurfacesCost-Effective TransitionFlexibility and ScalabilityHow Tokenization WorksPerformance and ScalabilityRegulatory ComplianceEvaluating System Suitability for Tokenization in Quantum ReadinessAssessing System Suitability for Tokenization --- ### Quantum Computing - Looming Threat to Telecom Security > Learn practical steps to protect every device in your telecommunications organization from looming quantum computing threats. - Published: 2021-04-13 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-telecom/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Since the early 2000s, the field of quantum computing has seen significant advancements, both in technological development and in commercialization efforts. The experimental demonstration of Shor's algorithm in 2001 proved to be one of the key catalyzing events, spurring increased interest and investment from both the public and private sectors. IntroductionUnderstanding the Quantum ThreatQuantum Computing BasicsQuantum AnnealingImpact on CryptographyTelecom-Specific Cryptographic Algorithms in 5GSNOW 3G and ZUC in 5G NetworksAES-Based Algorithms5G Authentication and Key Agreement (5G-AKA)Quantum Algorithms Threatening CryptographyShor’s AlgorithmGrover’s AlgorithmHash-Based Cryptography VulnerabilitiesRefinements and New DevelopmentsAssessing Organizational VulnerabilitiesEnterprise ITBeyond Enterprise ITConducting a Comprehensive InventoryPractical Steps to Prepare for Quantum ComputingDevelop a Transition PlanUpgrade to Quantum-Resistant CryptographyAddress Every Device and SystemEnhance Security PoliciesStay Informed and AdaptiveTelecommunications-Specific ChallengesConclusionIntroduction (Note: The following scenario is a fictional illustration intended to demonstrate potential risks posed by quantum computing to the telecommunications industry. Zenith Telecom is a hypothetical company created for this purpose. ) Imagine a global leader in telecommunications, Zenith Telecom, preparing to launch its next-generation 5G network. Engineers have invested months, or years, in ensuring the network is secure, reliable, and fast. They have implemented advanced encryption protocols like RSA-4096 and elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC), along with 5G-specific algorithms such as 128-NEA1, 128-NEA2, and 128-NEA3 for encryption, and 128-NIA1, 128-NIA2, and 128-NIA3 for integrity protection to safeguard data. On the eve of the launch, unusual activities surface. Encrypted data packets that should be indecipherable are intercepted and read in plain text. Unauthorized access appears in Secure Shell (SSH) sessions, and Virtual Private Network (VPN) tunnels are compromised without triggering any alarms. As the night unfolds, the situation worsens. Authentication tokens are forged, allowing intruders to mimic legitimate users. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) credentials using 5G Authentication and Key Agreement (5G-AKA) are extracted en masse, putting millions of customers’ data at risk. Control signals managing everything from network routing to emergency services become vulnerable to hijacking. The consequences are catastrophic and far-reaching. Stock prices plummet as investors lose confidence, and regulatory fines loom large. The company’s reputation is in ruins, but the impact extends far beyond financial loss. Critical services reliant on the telecommunications network begin to... --- ### Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) and Impact on Cyber > Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its subset Quantum Annealing, are another models for quantum computation focused on optimization... - Published: 2021-04-03 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-cyber/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its variant Quantum Annealing, are another model for quantum computation. It's a specialized subset of quantum computing focused on solving optimization problems by finding the minimum (or maximum) of a given function over a set of possible solutions. For problems that can be presented as optimization problems, such as 3-SAT problem, quantum database search problem, and yes, the factoring problem we are worried about, quantum annealers have shown great potential in solving them in a way that classical computers struggle with. IntroductionFactorization and Classical ComputersUniversal Quantum ComputingAdiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) and Quantum AnnealingIntroduction When we discuss quantum computing, we most often refer to Universal Quantum Computing, also known as Gate-Based Quantum Computing. This is the familiar model of quantum computing which uses quantum gates to perform operations on qubits in a similar way classical computers manipulate classical bits. This flavor of quantum computing is known as “universal” because, in theory, it can perform any computation that a classical computer can, but potentially much faster for certain types of problems. That's not the only model of quantum computing, however. But let's start from the beginning. Factorization and Classical Computers The integer factorization problem reduces an integer N to its prime factors. Finding these prime factors is a computationally hard problem. In other words, there is no simple formula to find such prime factors. Algorithms for factorization all require many computational operations. This requirement is mathematically proven, the algorithms are deterministic, and because of the difficulty of this mathematical problem, this is used as the basic hardness assumption for many encryption methods in use today. The fastest known classical algorithm for integer factorization is the general number field sieve (GNFS) which scales exponentially in the number of operations required with respect to the size of the integer to be factored. It's easy to see how increasing the bits in the integer N, exponentially increases the computing requirement. For example, RSA-2048 with a 2048-bit size key would take billions of years of processing on a classical computer. The precise number would depending on the computer's processing power and various algorithm optimizations. In any case, somewhat beyond the patience of any adversary that might target you. On a related note, if you want to learn more about the development of (classical) factoring algorithms and the... --- ### China’s Jiuzhang Achieves Photonic Quantum Advantage > A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum chip - Published: 2020-12-08 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-jiuzhang-quantum/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: China A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum processor that achieved a major computational milestone. In experiments reported on December 3, 2020, Jiuzhang completed in 200 seconds a mathematical problem that researchers estimate would take a classical supercomputer on the order of 2.5 billion years to solve​. Hefei, China (Dec 2020) - A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum processor that achieved a major computational milestone. In experiments reported on December 3, 2020, Jiuzhang completed in 200 seconds a mathematical problem that researchers estimate would take a classical supercomputer on the order of 2. 5 billion years to solve​. This astonishing speedup – about 1014 times faster than the world’s fastest conventional supercomputers​ – signifies that Jiuzhang has attained “quantum computational advantage,” a level of performance where a quantum computer overwhelmingly outperforms any classical computer on a specific task​. It marks only the second time ever that quantum advantage (also known as quantum supremacy) has been claimed; the first was by Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore processor in 2019​. Jiuzhang’s achievement is particularly noteworthy as it’s the world’s first light-based quantum computer to reach this benchmark​, using photons (particles of light) instead of electronic circuits. Jiuzhang – named after an ancient Chinese mathematical text – was developed by Pan Jianwei, Lu Chaoyang, and colleagues at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC)​. The accomplishment has been hailed as a “state-of-the-art experiment” and a “major achievement” by experts around the globe​. Barry Sanders, director of the University of Calgary’s quantum science institute, called it “one of the most significant results in the field of quantum computing” since Google’s 2019 result​. The feat instantly cements China’s position among the top tier of nations competing in quantum technology​ and provides a fundamentally different approach to building powerful quantum machines. Anton Zeilinger, a renowned quantum physicist, remarked that after this experiment “there is a very good chance that quantum computers may be used very broadly someday,” noting the rapid progress by Pan’s group and others​. In a USTC... --- ### Early History of Quantum Computing > Brief history of quantum computing from quantum mechanics theory to practical implementations of quantum computers - Published: 2020-06-16 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/history-quantum-computing/ - Categories: Quantum Computing - Tags: popular Since the early 2000s, the field of quantum computing has seen significant advancements, both in technological development and in commercialization efforts. The experimental demonstration of Shor's algorithm in 2001 proved to be one of the key catalyzing events, spurring increased interest and investment from both the public and private sectors. Early Theoretical Foundations and Algorithmic Breakthroughs1920 to 1985 - The Conceptual Beginnings1957 - The Many Worlds of Hugh Everett1968 - Conjugate Coding and Stephen Wiesner1970 - James Park and No-Cloning Theorem1980 - Paul Benioff and Quantum Mechanical Models of Computers1981 - Richard Feyman1985 - David Deutsch and the Universal Quantum Computer1994 to 1996 - Quantum Algorithms Emerge1994 - Peter Shor1996 - Lov GroverThe Evolution of Quantum Computing1995 and 1996 - Quantum Error Correction Emerges1995 to present - Physical Realization and Challenges1995 - First Quantum Logic Gate Using Trapped Ions1999 - First Demonstration of Superconducting Qubits2001 - First Experimental Implementation of Linear Optical Quantum Computing2001 - First Experimental Demonstration of Shor's AlgorithmRecent Developments and CommercializationEntering the Era of Quantum SupremacyAs a failed physicist - my first academic pursuits were in theoretical physics and applied geophysics, and as the son of a well-known theoretical physicist, quantum computing has always fascinated me. It brought together my initial scientific interests and my chosen career in computer science, cryptography and cybersecurity. Admittedly, I never fully understood quantum mechanics, but its intersection with computing and potential practical applications are intriguing. In case you are as interested in the field as I am, here's a brief history of quantum computing with a brief description of each important event and with lots of relevant links. The full history of the quantum computing field would have to include thousands of scientists and hundreds of events. A more comprehensive timeline is available on Wikipedia "Timeline of quantum computing and communication. " In this article I selected only the events I believe were the most influential, or I personally found them most fascinating. Every time I mention a year in the article, I refer to the first instance a particular theory or an algorithm were proposed or an implementation demonstrated, but,... --- ### Entanglement-Based QKD Protocols: E91 and BBM92 > Entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications... - Published: 2020-04-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/entanglement-based-qkd/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Networks While prepare-and-measure QKD currently leads the market due to simplicity and higher key rates, entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications. Ongoing improvements in photonic technology are steadily closing the gap in performance. The additional security guarantees (e.g., tolerance of untrusted devices) and network capabilities (multi-user, untrusted relay) provided by entanglement make it a very attractive approach for future large-scale quantum-secure networks. Introduction to Entanglement-Based QKDMathematical FoundationsQuantum Entanglement and its Role in QKDBell Inequalities and the CHSH TestQuantum Correlations – Mathematical FormulationDetailed Breakdown of Entanglement-Based QKD ProtocolsE91 Protocol (Ekert 1991)BBM92 Protocol (Bennett, Brassard, Mermin 1992)Security ComparisonEavesdropping ResistanceSecurity Model Differences (E91 vs BBM92 vs BB84)Trusted Devices AssumptionSource IndependenceBell Test vs QBERVulnerabilitiesSide-Channel CountermeasuresMDI-QKD vs DI-QKDMDI-QKDDI-QKDSummaryPractical ImplementationsExperimental RealizationsFiber vs. Free-Space/SatelliteTechnological ChallengesIndustry and Commercial InterestIntroduction to Entanglement-Based QKD Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a method for two distant parties (traditionally Alice and Bob) to generate a shared secret key by exchanging quantum signals over an insecure channel. Its security is guaranteed by fundamental quantum mechanics: any eavesdropper (Eve) attempting to intercept or measure the quantum states will disturb them in a detectable way​. In a typical QKD scheme like BB84 (Bennett-Brassard 1984), Alice prepares single photons in one of several possible polarization states (encoding 0/1 bits) and sends them to Bob, who measures each in a randomly chosen basis. After many photon transmissions, Alice and Bob publicly compare which bases they used and keep only those events where their bases matched, yielding correlated binary outcomes. Any attempt by Eve to glean information (by measuring photons in transit) introduces errors, alerting Alice and Bob to her presence​. This prepare-and-measure approach (exemplified by BB84 and its variant B92) relies on encoding key bits into prepared quantum states and detecting disturbances via error rates. Entanglement-based QKD offers an alternative paradigm that exploits quantum entanglement as a resource for secure key generation​​. Instead of one party sending prepared states to the other, a source produces entangled photon pairs and distributes them such that Alice and Bob each receive one particle of each pair. Because the entangled photons have correlated (indeed quantum-correlated) properties, measurements performed by Alice and Bob are strongly linked. Notably, the outcomes are intrinsically random for each party,... --- ### Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and the BB84 Protocol > Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics... - Published: 2020-04-13 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qkd-bb84/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Networks Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics to distribute cryptographic keys with guaranteed security.Unlike classical encryption, whose security often relies on the computational difficulty of certain mathematical problems, QKD's security is based on the laws of physics, which are, as far as we know, unbreakable. Cryptography BackgroundSecret or Symmetric Key CryptographyAsymmetric or Public-Key CryptographyQuantum Theoretical UnderpinningHeisenberg Uncertainty PrincipleNo-Cloning TheoremImplications of No-Cloning Theorem for Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)The Concept of QKDBB84: The First Quantum Key Distribution ProtocolBreakdown of the BB84 ProtocolSecurity and Practical ImplementationConclusionI often write about the risks quantum computing poses to cryptography and cybersecurity. However, in some ways, quantum mechanics also provides an amazing solution for some of these challenges—a solution that, as of now, we don't even have the slightest idea if and how it could be broken. Let me illustrate this with Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), exemplified by the BB84 protocol that initiated it. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics to distribute cryptographic keys with guaranteed security. Unlike classical encryption, whose security often relies on the computational difficulty of certain mathematical problems (see "What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction" for an introduction), QKD's security is based on the laws of physics, which are, as far as we know, unbreakable. Cryptography Background Knowing my audience, I'll keep this brief. I want to emphasize one aspect of cryptography, though—our professional lives would have been much simpler if we could have solely relied on symmetric cryptography. Secret or Symmetric Key Cryptography In symmetric key cryptography, two parties, typically referred to as Alice and Bob, encrypt and decrypt their messages using the same shared key. According to the Vernam theorem, a symmetric encryption technique can ensure absolute secrecy if the a random, one-time key is used and if the key is as long as the message itself. The Vernam cipher, developed by Gilbert Vernam in 1917, embodies this principle. He documented it in his patent application. The Vernam theorem underpins the absolute security of this encryption method, stating that if the key is truly... --- ### The Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate in Quantum Computing > The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations... - Published: 2020-03-01 - Modified: 2025-03-01 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cnot-gate-quantum/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations. By learning how the CNOT gate works and why it matters, cybersecurity experts can better appreciate how quantum computers process information, how they might break cryptography, and how they enable new secure protocols. This article provides an accessible yet rigorous overview of the CNOT gate, tailored for tech-savvy professionals in security. IntroductionFoundational Quantum ConceptsWhat is the CNOT Gate? Why is the CNOT Gate Fundamental? How Other Logical Gates Can Be Constructed with CNOTRole in Quantum Cryptography & Error CorrectionCNOT in Quantum Cryptography (QKD and GHZ States)CNOT in Quantum Error CorrectionConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is poised to revolutionize the field of cybersecurity – both by breaking some of today’s encryption and by offering new, physics-based security protocols. Unlike classical computers, which use bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum computers use quantum bits (qubits) that leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to perform computations beyond classical capabilities. This power comes with a double-edged sword for security: on one hand, a sufficiently large quantum computer could crack widely used cryptographic algorithms (for example, Shor’s algorithm can factor large numbers, threatening RSA encryption), and on the other hand, quantum mechanics enables new secure communication methods like quantum key distribution (QKD). Governments and industry are taking note – the U. S. Department of Homeland Security has even identified the transition to post-quantum encryption as a priority to ensure cyber resilience. With quantum computing advancing rapidly, it’s crucial for cybersecurity professionals to grasp its fundamentals. In particular, understanding the Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate – one of the most important two-qubit logic gates – is essential. The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations. By learning how the CNOT gate works and why it matters, cybersecurity experts can better appreciate how quantum computers process information, how they might break cryptography, and how they enable new secure protocols. This article provides an accessible yet rigorous overview of the CNOT gate, tailored for tech-savvy professionals in security. Foundational Quantum Concepts Before diving into the CNOT gate, let’s briefly review a few quantum computing basics: qubits, superposition,... --- ### Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) Benchmark > At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. - Published: 2019-12-30 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/rcs-benchmark/ - Categories: Quantum Computing At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. Compare the results to what an ideal quantum computer should produce. If the quantum computer’s output closely matches the theoretical expectations, it demonstrates that the system is performing quantum operations correctly. What is Random Circuit Sampling (RCS)? Why is RCS an Important Benchmark for Quantum Computing? Hard for Classical Computers to SimulateNo Structure to ExploitA Proxy for Quantum Error RatesThe Mathematics Behind RCSComputing the Ideal Output DistributionCross-Entropy BenchmarkingThe Rise of RCS: From Theory to Google’s Quantum SupremacyChallenges and Criticism of RCSConclusionQuantum computing is advancing rapidly, with companies like Google, IBM, and Microsoft racing to prove their hardware can perform computations beyond the reach of classical supercomputers. But how do we measure quantum progress? How can we objectively say one quantum processor is “better” than another? One of the most significant milestones in quantum computing history was Google’s 2019 announcement of “quantum supremacy”—a term used to describe a quantum device performing a task that no classical computer could realistically complete in a reasonable amount of time. This claim was based on a technique known as Random Circuit Sampling (RCS). Since then, RCS has become a widely used benchmark for quantum processors, allowing researchers to compare different machines and test whether they truly push the boundaries of computational feasibility. What is Random Circuit Sampling (RCS)? At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. The goal is simple: Take a quantum computer. Run a randomly generated quantum circuit. Measure the results. Compare them to what an ideal quantum computer should produce. If the quantum computer’s output closely matches the theoretical expectations, it demonstrates that the system is performing quantum operations correctly. But why random circuits? Why not use structured computations like Shor’s algorithm for factoring numbers or Grover’s search algorithm? The answer lies in hardness. Many quantum algorithms can be approximated or simulated efficiently by classical computers—especially when they exploit symmetries or special mathematical structures. However,... --- ### Breaking RSA-2048 With 20M Noisy Qubit > Paper authors claim that their construction's spacetime volume for factoring RSA-2048 integers is a hundredfold less than earlier estimates - Published: 2019-12-07 - Modified: 2024-05-25 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/breaking-rsa-2048-20m/ - Categories: Industry News An interesting paper was published on arXiv, the preprint server. Titled "How to factor 2048 bit RSA integers in 8 hours using 20 million noisy qubits," the paper by Craig Gidney and Martin Ekerå combines previous techniques from Shor (1994), Griffiths-Niu (1996), Zalka (2006), Fowler (2012), Ekerå-Håstad (2017), Ekerå (2017, 2018), Gidney-Fowler (2019), and Gidney (2019) to significantly reduce the cost of factoring integers and computing discrete logarithms in finite fields on a quantum computer. By integrating these approaches, the authors claim that their construction's spacetime volume for factoring RSA-2048 integers is a hundredfold less than comparable estimates from earlier works. I find this paper notable because only six years ago, Fowler et al. published their optimization of Shor's algorithm, estimating the need for 1 billion noisy qubits to factor RSA-2048. The rapid advancement in quantum algorithm development gives us an intriguing data point to predict when quantum computers will be capable of breaking our current cryptography. See the full paper here: https://arxiv. org/abs/1905. 09749 --- ### The Quantum Computing Threat > Along with exciting new capabilities that will serve humanity in general, quantum computing also ushers in an era of expanded cyber risks. - Published: 2019-11-04 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-security/ - Categories: Post-Quantum - Tags: popular The secret sauce of quantum computing, which even Einstein called "spooky," is the ability to generate and manipulate quantum bits of data or qubits. Certain computational tasks can be executed exponentially faster on a quantum processor using qubits, than on a classical computer with 1s and 0s. A qubit can attain a third state of superimposition of 1s and 0s simultaneously, encode data into quantum mechanical properties by "entangling" pairs of qubits, manipulate that data and perform huge complex calculations very quickly. IntroductionThe Breadth of the Quantum Threat to Cybersecurity and 5G SecurityCurrent Advances in Quantum ComputingWhat is Required for Quantum Resilience? What Governments are Doing and/or Should be Doing to Address the Quantum ThreatThe Challenge of ChinaQuantum Security ConclusionIntroduction Recently, in the science journal Nature, Google claimed ‘quantum supremacy’ saying that its quantum computer is the first to perform a calculation that would be practically impossible for a classical machine. This quantum computing breakthrough brings us closer to the arrival of functional quantum systems which will have a profound effect on today's security infrastructure. How will quantum computing affect the security of 5G technologies currently being developed and deployed? Last spring we suggested that the emergence of quantum internet connectivity and computation, expected sometime in the next decade, poses numerous new cryptography and cybersecurity challenges for 5G security. MIT offers an explainer on the nascent status of powerful quantum computers, how they work, and where they might provide practical value first. While quantum computers are not expected to replace classical supercomputers for most tasks and problems, they will leverage the "almost-mystical" phenomena of quantum mechanics to produce amazing advances in fields such as materials science and pharmaceuticals. The secret sauce of quantum computing, which even Einstein called "spooky," is the ability to generate and manipulate quantum bits of data or qubits. Certain computational tasks can be executed exponentially faster on a quantum processor using qubits, than on a classical computer with 1s and 0s. A qubit can attain a third state of superimposition of 1s and 0s simultaneously, encode data into quantum mechanical properties by "entangling" pairs of qubits, manipulate that data and perform huge complex calculations very quickly. The fundamental challenge is to build a sufficiently high capacity processor capable of running quantum algorithms in an exponentially larger computational space.... --- ### Google’s Sycamore Achieves Quantum Supremacy > Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy” - Published: 2019-10-26 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-sycamore/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy.” In a paper published in Nature, the Google AI Quantum team reported that Sycamore performed a specific computation in approximately 200 seconds – a task they estimated would take the world’s fastest classical supercomputer at least 10,000 years to complete​. What Was Achieved, and How? How Sycamore Compares to Earlier Quantum Computing MilestonesIBM’s Superconducting QubitsD-Wave’s Quantum AnnealersTrapped-Ion Quantum ComputersOther Notable MilestonesWhy Does It Matter? Implications for Industry and ComputingCybersecurity Concerns in the Quantum EraMountain View, CA, USA (Oct 2019) – Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy. ” In a paper published in Nature, the Google AI Quantum team reported that Sycamore performed a specific computation in approximately 200 seconds – a task they estimated would take the world’s fastest classical supercomputer at least 10,000 years to complete​. This achievement marks the first time a quantum computer has outpaced classical computers for a real computational problem, heralding a new era in computing research. Researchers at NASA and Oak Ridge National Laboratory, who collaborated on benchmarking the feat, lauded the result as a “transformative achievement” demonstrating computation in seconds that would take “the largest and most advanced supercomputers” millennia​. Quantum Supremacy – a term coined by Caltech professor John Preskill in 2012 – refers to the moment a programmable quantum computer performs a calculation that no conventional computer can feasibly solve​. Google’s experiment validated this concept by having Sycamore tackle a carefully chosen task: sampling the output of a random quantum circuit. In essence, the processor had to generate a set of one million bitstrings (random 53-bit numbers) with probabilities dictated by quantum interference, and do so faster than any known classical algorithm could simulate​. The difficulty of this task grows exponentially with the number of qubits; even for the most powerful classical supercomputer (IBM’s 2019 Summit), direct simulation of Sycamore’s 53-qubit circuit is impractical. Google’s team estimated such a simulation might require $$2^{53}$$ computational states – about 10 quadrillion – making it “exponentially costly” in time and memory​​. By performing... --- ### Challenges of Upgrading to Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) > The shift to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention... - Published: 2019-10-14 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-challenges/ - Categories: Post-Quantum The shift to post-quantum cryptography is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention. The quantum threat affects all forms of computing—whether it’s enterprise IT, IoT devices, or personal electronics. Transitioning to quantum-resistant algorithms is a complex, resource-intensive task that demands coordination across the supply chain, extensive security audits, and careful management of performance and cost issues. IntroductionThe Quantum Threat: A Universal VulnerabilityBeyond Enterprise IT: The Vulnerability of Non-IT SystemsPerformance and Efficiency Concerns: Larger Key Sizes and More Computing PowerSecurity Auditing, Algorithm Maturity, and Side-Channel AttacksSupply Chain and Vendor CoordinationCost and Resource Allocation: A Complex and Expensive TransitionOrganizational Readiness and Misconceptions: Why Companies Delay ActionConclusion: The Need for Immediate ActionIntroduction Quantum computing, once a theoretical field, is rapidly becoming a tangible reality. Its potential to revolutionize many scientific and technical fields is accompanied by a dark side: the ability to break many of the cryptographic protocols we rely on today. Asymmetric cryptography algorithms like RSA and ECC, which safeguard much of our online data and communications, will be rendered vulnerable to quantum attacks, primarily due to algorithms like Shor’s Algorithm. This means that to secure the future, we must transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC)—a massive task that poses significant challenges for organizations worldwide. In my opinion, a task that is more massive then Y2K. For those who remember it. The Quantum Threat: A Universal Vulnerability One of the most significant implications of quantum computing is its ability to compromise nearly every device that relies on encryption. Devices today use both asymmetric and symmetric cryptography for everything from secure communications to validating software integrity. While asymmetric algorithms like RSA and ECC will be completely broken by quantum computers, even symmetric cryptography will be weakened. For example, symmetric algorithms like AES, although not entirely broken, will require substantially larger key sizes to remain secure. Moreover, quantum computers can weaken cryptographic hash functions used to verify data integrity, thus making software updates, digital signatures, and device authentications vulnerable. This means the quantum threat doesn’t just apply to high-security enterprise systems—it touches every connected device. From smartphones and laptops to industrial control systems and IoT devices, quantum computing poses a risk... --- ### What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction > I'll try and break down the concepts of quantum computing, explore why it's better than classical computing for certain tasks, and discuss... - Published: 2019-04-04 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-introduction/ - Categories: Post-Quantum, Quantum Computing Quantum computing holds the potential to revolutionize fields where classical computers struggle, particularly in areas involving complex quantum systems, large-scale optimization, and cryptography. The power of quantum computing lies in its ability to leverage the principles of quantum mechanics—superposition and entanglement—to perform certain types of calculations much more efficiently than classical computers. IntroductionClassical vs. Quantum ComputingSuperpositionExponential Growth of StatesEntanglementGrover's Search AlgorithmTypes of Problems Suitable for Quantum ComputingProblems Not Suitable for Quantum ComputingProblem for CybersecurityPervasiveness of Quantum-Vulnerable Cryptography in Current SystemsPublic Key Infrastructure (PKI)Secure Software DistributionSingle Sign-On (SSO)Key Exchange over a Public ChannelSecure Email (S/MIME)Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)Secure Web Browsing (SSL/TLS)Blockchain TechnologiesPayment SystemsSmart GridsIndustrial Control Systems (ICS)Wireless CommunicationOthersSymmetric CryptographyHashing AlgorithmsConclusionIntroduction Recently I suggested that the emergence of quantum internet connectivity and computation, expected sometime in the next decade, poses numerous new cryptography and cybersecurity challenges for 5G security. Let me explain. MIT offers an explainer on the nascent status of powerful quantum computers, how they work, and where they might provide practical value first. While quantum computers are not expected to replace classical supercomputers for most tasks and problems, they will leverage the “almost-mystical” phenomena of quantum mechanics to produce amazing advances in certain fields such as cryptography, drug discovery, materials sciences, and artificial intelligence. However, understanding quantum computing can be challenging due to its reliance on principles of quantum mechanics. The secret sauce of quantum computing, which even Einstein called “spooky,” is the ability to generate and manipulate quantum bits of data or qubits. Certain computational tasks can be executed exponentially faster on a quantum processor using qubits, than on a classical computer with 1s and 0s. A qubit can attain a third state of supeposition of 1s and 0s simultaneously, encode data into quantum mechanical properties by “entangling” pairs of qubits, manipulate that data and perform huge complex calculations very quickly. The fundamental challenge is to build a sufficiently high capacity processor capable of running quantum algorithms in an exponentially larger computational space. Classical vs. Quantum Computing To understand the differences between classical and quantum computing, let's first understand how classical computers work. Classical computers use bits, which are the basic... --- ### Introduction to Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG) > Unlike classical methods, QRNG leverages the inherent unpredictability of quantum mechanics. At the quantum level, particles such as photons... - Published: 2019-01-17 - Modified: 2025-02-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-random-number-generation-qrng/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Cryptographic systems rely on the unpredictability and randomness of numbers to secure data. In cryptography, the strength of encryption keys depends on their unpredictability. Unpredictable and truly random numbers—those that remain secure even against extensive computational resources and are completely unknown to adversaries—are among the most essential elements in cryptography and cybersecurity. IntroductionThe Problem with PredictabilityCloudflare Lava LampsQuantum Random Number Generation (QRNG)Why QRNGs Are a Superior Solution for Randomness GenerationFundamental Quantum RandomnessSimplicity and Reliability of Quantum ProcessesCertification and Validation of RandomnessEnhanced Security and TrustChallenges With QRNGQRNG in ProductionConclusionIntroduction Cryptographic systems rely on the unpredictability and randomness of numbers to secure data. In cryptography, the strength of encryption keys depends on their unpredictability. Unpredictable and truly random numbers—those that remain secure even against extensive computational resources and are completely unknown to adversaries—are among the most essential elements in cryptography and cybersecurity. In cryptography, random numbers are used in multiple ways: Encryption Keys: At the heart of cryptographic systems are encryption keys, which are used to encode and decode information. These keys must be random and unpredictable to ensure that unauthorized parties cannot guess them. If an encryption key were predictable, it would be vulnerable to attacks, allowing intruders to decipher the encrypted data. Random numbers ensure that each key is unique and cannot be easily replicated or anticipated. Initialization Vectors and Nonces: In many encryption schemes, random numbers are used as initialization vectors (IVs) and nonces. These elements add an additional layer of randomness to the encryption process, ensuring that even if the same plaintext is encrypted multiple times, the resulting ciphertexts will be different. This prevents attackers from identifying patterns and exploiting them to break the encryption. Random Padding: To secure data further, random padding is often added before encryption. This padding prevents attackers from making educated guesses about the structure or content of the plaintext based on the length or other characteristics of the ciphertext. Key Generation and Exchange: Random numbers are essential in the generation of cryptographic keys. During key exchange protocols, such as Diffie-Hellman, randomness ensures that the keys exchanged between parties are secure and not predictable by eavesdroppers.... --- ### U.S. National Quantum Initiative Act > On December 21, 2018, the United States solidified its commitment to quantum technology by enacting the National Quantum Initiative Act - Published: 2018-12-29 - Modified: 2025-03-16 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/us-quantum-initiative-act/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: United States On December 21, 2018, the United States solidified its commitment to quantum technology advancement by enacting the H. R. 6227 - National Quantum Initiative Act. Passed with near-unanimous support from both houses of Congress, this landmark legislation outlines a comprehensive 10-year plan aimed at maintaining and enhancing U. S. leadership in quantum technologies. Key Provisions of the National Quantum Initiative Act: Establishment of the National Quantum Coordination Office: Located within the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, this office is tasked with overseeing interagency coordination, providing strategic planning support, serving as a central point for stakeholder contact, promoting outreach, and facilitating the commercialization of federally funded research. Support for Quantum Research: The act significantly boosts funding and support across several federal agencies: The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) is supported to develop quantum measurement standards and technology. The Department of Energy (DOE) is endorsed to conduct basic research and establish national quantum research centers. The National Science Foundation (NSF) is encouraged to support fundamental quantum research and education through academic multidisciplinary centers. Promotion of Private Sector Involvement: The legislation calls on U. S. high-tech companies and quantum technology startups to contribute their expertise to national efforts, addressing research gaps and enhancing the workforce pipeline to secure a long-term competitive advantage for the U. S. Strategic Focus on Education and Workforce Development: The act emphasizes the importance of training a new generation of scientists and engineers in quantum technologies, aiming to power an economic and scientific revolution. Coordination and International Cooperation: Under the aegis of the National Science and Technology Council, the Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science is empowered to coordinate quantum research and education across federal agencies, recommend infrastructure needs, and evaluate opportunities for collaboration with strategic allies. --- ### Introducing Quantum AI > Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. - Published: 2018-12-14 - Modified: 2025-03-17 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-artificial-intelligence-qai/ - Categories: Quantum AI Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. This interdisciplinary field explores how quantum algorithms can enhance, accelerate, and expand the capabilities of conventional AI systems. Quantum computing's potential to process complex datasets exponentially faster than classical computers could revolutionize areas like machine learning, optimization, and pattern recognition. IntroductionExponential Growth in AI Computing RequirementsIntroduction to Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI)Why Quantum Computers Are Well-Suited for Manipulating Vectors and Matrices Required by AIRecent Key Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) Research PapersQuantum Machine Learning AlgorithmsApplications of Quantum AIChallenges and Future DirectionsConclusionIntroduction (This article was originally published in 2018. Updated in 2022 after the release of ChatGPT) While I like to explore and learn about quantum computing in my quantum-computing related blog PostQuantum. com, my main research and professional focus remains on AI, particularly on the security and safety aspects of AI. I typically share my AI-related writing on Defence. AI. Therefore, the potential integration of AI with quantum computing is of special personal interest to me, as it promises to blend my areas of interest in exciting new ways. It’s not uncommon to hear skepticism about Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI), often dismissed as just another buzzword amalgamation crafted primarily to captivate investors. However, the fusion of quantum computing and artificial intelligence makes sense and indeed holds tangible promise beyond just the hype. I'm aware of these doubts surrounding QAI and will try to demystify the practical value and potential breakthroughs achievable by integrating these technologies. Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an emerging new field where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. This conflation explores how quantum algorithms can enhance, accelerate, and expand the capabilities of conventional AI systems. Quantum computing, once commercially viable, will be able to offer to AI the level of computational power on a scale that classical computing systems simply cannot match. For a computing-power-hungry AI this means significantly enhanced processing power for tasks like optimization, simulation, and machine learning models, enabling them to handle more complex variables and train more quickly and effectively than ever before. This exponential growth in computational abilities could dramatically shorten the time required to... --- ### Why Do Quantum Computers Look So Weird? > The iconic look of superconducting quantum computers' "chandelier" causes lots of questions and discussions. For a simple introduction see... - Published: 2018-12-01 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computer-weird/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The intricate giant chandelier of copper tubes, wires, and shielding often leaves people puzzled and curious. This image of a quantum computer is quite striking and unlike any classical computer we've seen before. This unique appearance is not just for show; it's a direct result of the specific technological requirements needed to operate quantum computers, particularly those based on superconducting qubits. IntroductionWhy Cryogenics? Why Quantum Computer Chandeliers Hang from the CeilingKey Components of a Cryogenic SystemCryoperm ShieldCryogenic IsolatorsDilution Refrigerator and Mixing ChamberQuantum AmplifiersConclusion Introduction As someone somewhat involved in the world of quantum computing, I am frequently asked about the iconic and somewhat bizarre appearance of quantum computers. The intricate giant chandelier of copper tubes, wires, and shielding often leaves people puzzled and curious. This image of a quantum computer is quite striking and unlike any classical computer we've seen before. This unique appearance is not just for show; it's a direct result of the specific technological requirements needed to operate quantum computers, particularly those based on superconducting qubits. Why Cryogenics? Cryogenics, the science of producing and maintaining extremely low temperatures, is crucial for the operation of quantum computers. Quantum systems often operate in the millikelvin range, just thousandths of a degree above absolute zero (-273 °C or 0 Kelvin). Superconducting qubits need to be maintained at temperatures close to absolute zero (20-100 millikelvin) to minimize thermal noise and ensure quantum coherence. Thermal energy can cause decoherence, where qubits lose their quantum state. At higher temperatures, qubits interact more with their environment, leading to errors in computations. By cooling the system to near absolute zero, these interactions are minimized, allowing qubits to maintain coherence and perform the complex calculations quantum computers are designed for. While this temperature difference may seem minuscule, it has monumental implications for quantum technology. Even minute thermal vibrations at slightly higher temperatures, such as 4 Kelvin, can disrupt qubits, causing them to lose their quantum superposition states and revert to classical binary states through a process called decoherence. To preserve quantum coherence long enough to perform computations, qubit processor chips must operate at temperatures between 20-100 millikelvin, only millionths of a degree above absolute zero. At these... --- ### Quantum Computing Use Cases > While quantum computing is still in its early stages, with practical and widespread use yet to be realized, the potential it holds is transformative... - Published: 2018-11-30 - Modified: 2025-02-15 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-use-cases/ - Categories: Quantum Computing In the early 1900s, when theoretical physicist Max Planck first introduced the idea of quantized energy levels, he probably didn’t foresee his work eventually leading to machines that could solve problems faster than a caffeine-fueled mathematician on a deadline. Legend has it that Planck embarked on his quantum journey after his professor, Munich University physics professor Philipp von Jolly, discouraged him from studying physics, arguing that "in this field, almost everything is already discovered, and all that remains is to fill a few holes. " Thankfully, Planck didn’t listen. A century later, the world is abuzz with quantum computing—a technology and a concept so complex that, for many of us, it’s indistinguishable from magic. From Planck’s quaint beginnings of pondering blackbody radiation to today’s quantum leaps towards quantum computing, the evolution of quantum theory has been nothing short of extraordinary. This leap in understanding has opened the door to numerous practical applications of quantum computing, from optimizing complex logistics to revolutionizing cryptography and beyond. Quantum computers represent a radical leap in computational capability—it’s like comparing Star Trek warp drive to a horse-drawn carriage; both get you from point A to point B, but one does it a few million years faster and with a lot less hay. Think of quantum computers not as an evolution of classical computers, but as a divergence—a parallel development in computing that, for some sets of problems, can deliver speedups even bigger than warp drive compared to a carriage. I’m not even exaggerating. Quantum computers promise (or threaten) to break some of our cryptography in minutes, compared to the billions or trillions of years it would take a classical computer. At the heart of this revolution is the fundamental difference in how these two types of machines process information. Classical computers use bits as the... --- ### EU Launches Quantum Technologies Flagship > On October 29, 2018, the European Commission officially kicked off its ambitious Quantum Technologies Flagship initiative, - Published: 2018-11-01 - Modified: 2025-04-12 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-quantum-technologies-flagship/ - Categories: Industry News - Tags: Europe On October 29, 2018, following the Quantum Manifesto published in 2016, the European Commission officially kicked off its ambitious Quantum Technologies Flagship initiative, marking a significant step in Europe's commitment to quantum technology development. The initiative, backed by the European Commission, allocates over €1 billion in funding to support more than 5,000 of Europe's leading quantum technology researchers over the next decade. The Flagship Initiative aims to facilitate breakthroughs in quantum technology through a comprehensive and coordinated research effort spanning various projects across the EU. This initiative is part of Europe's strategic plan to become a global leader in the field of quantum technologies, enhancing innovation, security, and competitiveness in the digital age. The funded projects under this initiative cover a broad spectrum of quantum technologies, from basic research to market-ready applications, ensuring a holistic approach to the development of quantum capabilities in Europe. The initiative not only focuses on advancing the state of the art in quantum computing, quantum communication, and quantum sensing but also aims to address societal challenges through quantum technologies, ensuring Europe's technological sovereignty in this critical field. For more information refer to the press release detailing the launch. --- ### The Argument Against Quantum Computers > Quanta Magazine just published an interesting article, “The Argument Against Quantum Computers,” discussing quantum computing skepticism... - Published: 2018-02-09 - Modified: 2024-05-31 - URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/against-quantum-computers/ - Categories: Industry News And now for something different from our regular programming. Quanta Magazine just published an interesting article, “The Argument Against Quantum Computers,” by Katia Moskvitch. The article discusses Gil Kalai’s skepticism about the feasibility of quantum computers. Kalai, a mathematician, argues that quantum computers will struggle with noise and error correction, making them impractical. He believes that the inherent noise in quantum systems will corrupt computations, preventing them from achieving quantum supremacy. Despite significant investments and efforts by major tech companies and governments, Kalai remains doubtful that quantum computers will ever function as intended due to these fundamental challenges. Read the article here: The Argument Against Quantum Computers. --- ### Shor’s Algorithm: A Quantum Threat to Modern Cryptography > Shor’s Algorithm is more than just a theoretical curiosity – it’s a wake-up call for the security community... - Published: 2017-10-18 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/shors-algorithm-a-quantum-threat/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Shor’s Algorithm is more than just a theoretical curiosity – it’s a wake-up call for the security community. By understanding its principles and implications, we can appreciate why the cryptographic landscape must evolve. The goal of this guide is to equip you with that understanding, without delving into complex mathematics, so you can make informed decisions about protecting your organization’s data against the quantum threat. IntroductionBackground on RSA EncryptionHow RSA works (conceptually)Why factoring large numbers mattersReal-world uses of RSAThe takeawayThe Threat of Quantum Computing to RSAWhy classical computers struggle with factoringHow quantum computing is differentQuantum vs Classical for factoringUnderstanding Shor’s AlgorithmProblem setup – reducing factoring to period-findingWhere quantum kicks in – the period-finding machineWhy Shor’s Algorithm is efficientShor’s Algorithm (Conceptual Steps)Cybersecurity ImplicationsBreaking RSA, DH, and ECCTimeline – How close are we to “Q-day”? Industry and expert concernsPost-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Mitigation StrategiesNIST’s PQC Standardization ProcessTypes of Post-Quantum AlgorithmsHybrid Cryptography – a transition strategySymmetric cryptography and other mitigationsSummary of PQC approachesConclusionRecommendations for cybersecurity professionalsSources(This article was updated in Dec 2024) Introduction Modern cryptography is the backbone of cybersecurity, protecting everything from personal messages to critical infrastructure. It employs mathematical techniques to secure data – ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of information in transit and storage​. Every day, encryption shields countless digital interactions: securing email and messaging, safeguarding online banking and e-commerce transactions, and protecting state secrets. In fact, encryption carries a heavy load in modern digitized society, guarding electronic secrets like email content, medical records, and information vital to national security​. Thanks to cryptography, sensitive data can traverse public networks unreadable to anyone but the intended recipient​ making it an indispensable tool in the cyber defender’s arsenal. At the heart of many cryptographic systems is the concept of a one-way function – a mathematical operation that’s easy to perform in one direction but extremely difficult to reverse without a special key. One prominent example is the multiplication of large prime numbers: multiplying two primes is easy, but finding the original prime factors from their product (a process called factorization) is incredibly hard. Modern encryption algorithms leverage this asymmetry. RSA, one of the most widely used public-key cryptosystems, bases its security on the difficulty of factoring large... --- ### Grover’s Algorithm and Its Impact on Cybersecurity > Grover’s algorithm is a fundamental quantum computing algorithm that dramatically accelerates unstructured search tasks... - Published: 2017-08-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/grovers-algorithm/ - Categories: Post-Quantum Grover’s algorithm was one of the first demonstrations of quantum advantage on a general problem. It highlighted how quantum phenomena like superposition and interference can be harnessed to outperform classical brute force search. Grover’s is often described as looking for “a needle in a haystack” using quantum mechanics. Introduction to Grover’s AlgorithmSignificance in Quantum ComputingRelevance to CybersecurityIntuitive Explanation of Grover’s AlgorithmMathematical FoundationComparison with Classical Search AlgorithmsComparison with Other Quantum AlgorithmsCybersecurity Implications of Grover’s AlgorithmImpact on Symmetric EncryptionImpact on Hash FunctionsImpact on Digital SignaturesImpact on Brute-force Attacks (Passwords and Keys)Practical Implementations of Grover’s AlgorithmMitigation Strategies Against Grover’s AlgorithmIncrease Key Sizes for Symmetric AlgorithmsEmbrace Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)Crypto Agility and System UpdatesKey Length Recommendations and GuidelinesAlternative Measures: Quantum-resistant protocols and QKDHybrid Cryptographic ApproachesFuture OutlookScaling of Quantum ComputersAdvancements in Grover’s Algorithm and Quantum TechniquesLong-term Cybersecurity AdaptationConclusionIntroduction to Grover’s Algorithm Grover’s algorithm is a fundamental quantum computing algorithm that dramatically accelerates unstructured search tasks. Developed by Lov Grover in 1996, it showed how a quantum computer can find a target item in an unsorted “database” of size N in roughly O(√N) steps, compared to O(N) steps classically​. In essence, Grover’s algorithm finds with high probability the unique input to a black-box function that produces a desired output value, using only O(√N) evaluations​. This quadratic speedup, while not as extreme as some other quantum algorithms, is significant – for example, searching a list of 1,000,000 items would take about 1,000,000 tries classically on average, but only ~1,000 tries with Grover’s algorithm on a quantum computer​. Significance in Quantum Computing Grover’s algorithm was one of the first demonstrations of quantum advantage on a general problem. It highlighted how quantum phenomena like superposition and interference can be harnessed to outperform classical brute force search. Grover’s is often described as looking for “a needle in a haystack” using quantum mechanics – it finds the needle in roughly the square root of the haystack size, which is vastly faster than checking each piece of hay one by one. Relevance to Cybersecurity Many cryptographic schemes rely on problems that are intractable to brute-force search. Grover’s algorithm directly threatens such... --- ### Quantum-Safe vs. Quantum-Secure Cryptography > I want to explain the differences between the terms "quantum-safe" and "quantum-secure", and why these distinctions matter... - Published: 2017-06-13 - Modified: 2024-05-31 - URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-safe-secure-cryptography/ - Categories: Post-Quantum In 2010, I was serving as an interim CISO for an investment bank. During that time, I was already trying to figure out the risks posed by quantum computing. One day, I was approached by a vendor who, with great confidence, made two bold claims. First, they insisted that the Q-Day is just around the corner, claiming they had insider information from the NSA suggesting CRQCs were mere weeks away. This, of course, was a load of rubbish. The second claim was even more audacious: they guaranteed that their algorithms were quantum-secure, offering absolute security against any quantum attack. These statements have since become my personal pet peeve as I am increasingly dealing with the quantum risk in my practice. The potential threat of quantum computing is a massive problem, and there will undoubtedly be a market for all vendors that can genuinely provide solutions. Making such exaggerations unnecessary and misleading. So, I'd like to explain the differences between the terms "quantum-safe" and "quantum-secure", and why these distinctions matter. These terms are frequently mentioned, often interchangeably, but they carry distinct meanings that are crucial to understand. Quantum-safe (or Quantum-Resistant) cryptographic methods are those that are believed to be resistant to attacks by quantum computers. These methods are designed with the understanding that quantum computers can solve certain mathematical problems much faster than classical computers, rendering many of our current cryptographic techniques obsolete. See "What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction. " Quantum-safe algorithms are thus seen as a safer choice compared to classical cryptographic methods, which are vulnerable to quantum attacks. However, calling these methods "safe" rather than "secure" underscores the fact that this confidence is based on our current understanding and assumptions. In other words, they are believed to be secure against known quantum attacks, but have not... --- ### Key Principles and Theorems in Quantum Computing and Networks > From Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to entanglement, these concepts are the building blocks of the quantum revolution... - Published: 2016-09-14 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/principles-theorems/ - Categories: Quantum Computing The landscape of quantum computing and quantum networks is an exciting frontier where physics and cybersecurity intersect. We’re witnessing the early days of this quantum revolution. As quantum hardware scales and quantum protocols move from labs to real-world deployment, security experts will need to collaborate with physicists like never before. By mastering concepts like Heisenberg’s uncertainty, Bell’s theorem, and the no-cloning rule, cybersecurity professionals equip themselves to navigate this new terrain. IntroductionKey Principles and TheoremsHeisenberg’s Uncertainty PrincipleNo-Cloning TheoremBell’s Theorem & Quantum EntanglementSuperpositionQuantum DecoherenceQuantum TunnelingQuantum Measurement ProblemEntanglement SwappingReal-World Applications and ExamplesQuantum Key Distribution (QKD)Quantum Algorithms and CryptanalysisQuantum Error Correction and Computing ProgressQuantum Networks and TeleportationCybersecurity ImplicationsHow These Principles Tie Together(This article, originally written in 2016, was updated in 2024 to highlight latest achievements) Introduction Quantum mechanics has upended our classical intuitions, revealing a world where particles can exist in multiple states at once and influence each other across vast distances. These strange phenomena are no longer just scientific curiosities—they form the foundation of quantum computing and quantum networks. In essence, quantum technologies harness effects like superposition and entanglement to process information in ways impossible for classical systems. For the cybersecurity professional, this is a double-edged sword. On one hand, quantum computers threaten to break many of today’s cryptographic algorithms by solving certain mathematical problems exponentially faster than classical machines​. On the other, quantum physics offers new defenses: for example, quantum key distribution (QKD) uses the laws of physics (instead of computational complexity) to enable provably secure communication, making undetected eavesdropping fundamentally impossible​. Understanding the key principles behind these technologies is crucial for anticipating both the risks and opportunities they bring to cybersecurity. Below, I'll introduce the core quantum-mechanical principles and theorems—each explained in accessible terms—before exploring real-world applications and security implications. From Heisenberg’s famous uncertainty principle to the mind-bending phenomenon of entanglement, these concepts are the building blocks of the quantum revolution that is now underway. Quantum-secured messages are already being sent in the real world, such as bank transfers and election results protected by QKD​, even as researchers race to build more powerful quantum computers. By grasping how these principles work, cybersecurity experts can better prepare for a future where quantum technology is part of the security landscape. Key Principles and... --- ### Qubits: A Brief Introduction for Cybersecurity Professionals > A qubit is the quantum analog of a classical bit – it’s the basic unit of quantum information. However, unlike a classical bit... - Published: 2016-09-02 - Modified: 2025-04-19 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/qubits-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Quantum Computing A qubit is the quantum analog of a classical bit – it’s the basic unit of quantum information. However, unlike a classical bit that can only be 0 or 1 at any given time, a qubit can exist in a combination of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously. This property is called superposition. IntroductionWhat Is a Qubit (and How Is It Different from a Bit)? Mathematical Representation of a QubitState Superposition NotationBloch Sphere RepresentationKey Quantum Concepts: Superposition, Entanglement, and MeasurementRelevance to Cybersecurity: Quantum Crypto and Post-Quantum PreparednessQuantum Key Distribution (QKD)Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)ConclusionIntroduction Quantum computing is an emerging field that promises to solve certain problems far faster than classical computers. Its fundamental unit of information is the qubit (quantum bit). For cybersecurity professionals, understanding qubits and their properties is key to grasping how quantum technologies might impact encryption, secure communications, and cryptography. This article introduces what qubits are, how they are described mathematically, key quantum operations, and why they matter in cybersecurity. What Is a Qubit (and How Is It Different from a Bit)? A qubit is the quantum analog of a classical bit – it’s the basic unit of quantum information. However, unlike a classical bit that can only be 0 or 1 at any given time, a qubit can exist in a combination of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously. This property is called superposition. In practical terms, a classical binary bit has to be in one of two possible states (0 or 1), whereas a qubit can represent 0, 1, or any proportion of 0 and 1 at the same time, with certain probabilities for each​. This means a qubit holds more information than a bit because it can explore many states at once until it’s measured. In essence, quantum mechanics allows a qubit to be in multiple states simultaneously, which is a fundamental departure from classical computing behavior. Mathematical Representation of a Qubit State Superposition Notation Quantum states are often described using Dirac bra-ket notation. A single qubit’s state is written as: $$∣ψ⟩=α ∣0⟩+β ∣1⟩,|\psi\rangle = \alpha\,|0\rangle + \beta\,|1\rangle,∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩$$, where $$∣0⟩|0\rangle∣0⟩$$ and $$∣1⟩|1\rangle∣1⟩$$ are the two basis states (read “ket 0” and... --- ### Bell States: An Introduction for Cybersecurity Professionals > Bell states are a set of four specific quantum states of two qubits (quantum bits) that are entangled. In simple terms, an entangled pair of qubits... - Published: 2016-08-19 - Modified: 2025-04-18 - URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/bell-states-cybersecurity/ - Categories: Quantum Computing Bell states are a set of four specific quantum states of two qubits (quantum bits) that are entangled. In simple terms, an entangled pair of qubits behaves as one system, no matter how far apart they are. Bell states are the simplest and most extreme examples of this phenomenon​. They are fundamental to quantum mechanics because they exhibit correlations between particles that have no classical equivalent – a showcase of the “spooky” interconnectedness allowed by quantum physics. What Are Bell States? The Four Bell States and NotationEntanglement in Bell States: An Intuitive ExplanationRelevance to Cybersecurity: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)Quantum technologies are emerging as a new frontier in cybersecurity. And having acted at the intersection of the two for a while, I often get asked for clarification of some of the key quantum concepts by my cybersecurity colleagues. One foundational concept in quantum computing and communication is the Bell state, which plays a key role in enabling ultra-secure communication methods like Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). This article introduces Bell states in clear terms, assuming no prior quantum computing background, and highlights their relevance to security professionals. What Are Bell States? Bell states are a set of four specific quantum states of two qubits (quantum bits) that are entangled. In simple terms, an entangled pair of qubits behaves as one system, no matter how far apart they are. Bell states are the simplest and most extreme examples of this phenomenon​. They are fundamental to quantum mechanics because they exhibit correlations between particles that have no classical equivalent – a showcase of the “spooky” interconnectedness allowed by quantum physics. These states are also a crucial resource in quantum communication, underpinning protocols like quantum teleportation and quantum cryptography​. (Recall: a qubit is like a quantum version of a bit. It can exist in state |0⟩ or |1⟩ (analogous to binary 0 or 1), or in a superposition of both until measured. ) Why “Bell” states? They are named after physicist John S. Bell, who studied such entangled states to test the foundations of quantum theory. Bell states are sometimes also called EPR pairs, after Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen, who first pondered these strange correlations. In essence, Bell states represent two-qubit systems with the strongest possible quantum correlations, making them maximally entangled pairs. The Four... ---